THE 

SCHOOL  ROOM  GUIDE 


TO 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING 


AND 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT 

BY 

E.  V.  DE  GRAFF,  A.  M. 

Conductor  of  Teachers'  Institutes 
One  Hundred.  Twenty- Seventh  Edition,  with  Index 


SYRACUSE,  N.  Y. 
C.  W.  BARDEEN,  PUBLISHER 

1904 


Copyright,  1877,  1884,  by  E.  V.  De  Graff ;  1890,  1894,  by  C.  W.  Bardeen 


PREFACE  TO  THE  111TH  EDITION 


For  the  fifth  time  an  entirely  new  set  of  plates  has 
been  made  for  this  volume.  The  advantage  of  such 
large  sale  as  to  make  this  possible  is  nowhere  more  mani- 
fest than  in  a  book  of  methods.  Whatever  it  may  have 
been  in  the  past,  the  teaching  of  to-day  is  progressive, 
and  the  methods  of  1877  are  not  altogether  the  methods 
of  1894.  Particularly  in  Drawing  and  in  Penmanship 
has  such  advance  been  made  that  it  seemed  necessary 
to  have  those  chapters  entirely  rewritten.  Of  the  new 
chapters  it  need  only  be  said  that  they  have  been  pre- 
pared respectively  by  Mrs.  Mary  Dana  Hicks  of  Boston  ; 
and  by  Charles  E.  Wells,  author  of  the  Movement 
Method  of  Penmanship.  We  have  also  substituted  for 
the  Geography  of  North  America  prepared  by  Mr. 
DeGraff  an  entirely  new  chapter,  condensed  from  the 
admirable  works  of  Prof.  Meiklejohn,  and  in  accord 
with  the  most  approved  modern  method  of  teaching. 

Except  in  these  three  chapters,  the  changes  are  mainly 
of  arrangement.  The  book  was  originally  made  up  of 
the  author's  notes  as  an  institute  conductor,  and  hence 
contained  many  repetitions.  In  this  edition  all  that 

was  anywhere   said  on  a  particular    topic    has  been 

(iii) 

359981 


IV 


PREFACE 


brought  together,  and  by  the  insertion  of  topical  side 
lines  has  been  made  easy  of  reference. 

But  as  a  whole  the  book  is  still  as  the  author  origin- 
ally wrote  it.  What  there  is 
in  Prof.  De  Graffs  method  of 
presentation  that  so  reaches 
and  holds  the  young  teacher, 
it  might  be  hard  to  say  ;  but 
he  has  never  had  his  equal 
as  an  institute  instructor  in 
the  inspiration  he  gave  ;  and 
superintendents  everywhere 
agree  that  where  other  books  are  bought  and  put  away, 
the  " School  Boom  Guide"'  is  bought  and  kept  on  the 
desk,  for  daily  use. 

There  is  probably  not  a  county  in  the  United  States 
where  this  book  is  not  known  and  valued.  In  this  new 
edition,  the  responsibility  for  which  has  through  the 
death  of  the  author  fallen  upon  the  publisher,  the  latter 
hopes  that  all  the  features  that  were  most  worthy  have 
been  retained,  while  the  additions  and  changes  will 
make  it  still  more  available  in  the  school-room. 

SYRACUSE,  March  27,  1894. 


E.  V.  DE  GRAFF. 


CONTENTS 


READING _ 9 

I.  METHODS _.     9 

ABC  Method _ 9 

Drawing  Method 10 

Word-Building  Method 11 

Phonic  Method __  11 

Phonetic  Method _ 13 

Phonotypic  Method _ 13 

Look-and-Say  Method __  14 

Object  Method _. __  15 

Word  Method 16 

Sentence  Method _ 21 

II.  PRIMARY  READING.  _ 22 

III.  INTERMEDIATE   READING 30 

PHONICS 42 

SPELLING..., _ ._  45 

Oral  Spelling... _ 47 

Written  Spelling _ 50 

Methods 53 

Exercises  in  Orthoepy _ _ 59 

PENMANSHIP  (25  Illustrations) _ .  62 

I.  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES __  62 

II.  PRACTICAL  EXERCISES __ _  69 

FORM  STUDY  AND  DRAWING  (27  Illustrations) 107 

I.  COURSE  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES 108 

Color  in  Primary  Grades 132 

II.  COURSE  FOR  INTERMEDIATE  AND  GRAMMAR  GRADES. -.141 

LANGUAGE  (4  Illustrations) 147 

Objects  as  Wholes .-149 

Parts  of  Objects  ._ 151 

(v) 


VI  CONTENTS 

"Words  as  Objects  of  Observation 153 

Illustrated  Compositions 156 

Comparison  of  Objects 158 

Lesson  on  General  Terms 161 

The  Parts  of  Speech 163 

Suggestive  Abstracts 174 

Synonyms _ __  179 

Mistakes  and  Vulgarisms 180 

Topics  for  Brief  Talks 183 

Questions  for  Debate 184 

Subjects  for  Compositions _  -  185 

GRAMMAR 188 

LETTER- WRITING  (1  Illustration) 201 

Importance  of  Letter- Writing 201 

Startling  Statistics  as  to  Dead  Letters 202 

I.  MECHANICAL  STRUCTURE 203 

First  Attempts 203 

Materials 204 

The  Heading .205 

Models _ 206 

The  Introduction 207 

Name  and  Title 208 

Salutation 210 

In  Writing  to  Women 213 

Models _ _ ..215 

The  Body  of  the  Letter _216 

Where  Begun 216 

Paragraphing _ _ 216 

The  Co nclusion 217 

Signature 218 

Women's  Signatures 218 

Models - -.218 

Folding ~ -.219 

Superscription _ __ -- 221 

Models --- 222 

Topical  Review _ 223 

Specific  Hints 224 


CONTENTS  Vll 

A  Postal-Card  from  Miss  Peabody 225 

II.  THE  STYLE  OF  THE  LETTER 227 

Bryant's   Advice _ 228 

III.  SUBSTANCE  OF  THE  LETTER. 229 

What  to  write 230 

When  to  write _ _  _  231 

When  to  delay ..232 

Bitter  Words __ _ 233 

ARITHMETIC  (2  Illustrations) __235 

I.  THE  FUNDAMENTAL  RULES 236 

II.  FRACTIONS 259 

III.  GENERAL  REMARKS. 268 

GEOGRAPHY  (2  Illustrations).. ....272 

I.  FIRST  STEPS _ 272; 

II.  ADVANCED  GEOGRAPHY 283: 

Study  of  North  America 285 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  (1  Illustration) 301 

I.  ELEMENTS  OF  CLIMATE 301 

II.  THE  GENERAL  LAW 304 

III.  MODIFICATIONS 306 

HISTORY.. ...320 

OBJECT  LESSONS _ 327 

I.  WITHOUT  APPARATUS 330 

II.  WITH  APPARATUS 341 

SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT _ _.34& 

I.  ORGANIZATION 346 

The  First  Day 347 

New  York  Course  of  Study  for  District  Schools 350 

II.  SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT. _ .355 

The  First  Requisite. ._ ..355 

Do  not  Anticipate  Offences 356 

A  Cheerful  School 357 

Corporal  Punishment. ._ _ 358 

Elements  of  the  True  Teacher 361 

Hints  on  the  Correction  of  Special  Offences .362 

Communication .. 363, 


Vlll  CONTENTS 

Loud  Study _ _._ 363 

Laughing 363 

Moving  Noisily _ 363 

Questions  during  Recitation 363 

Writing  Notes _ _  _  .363 

Uncleanliness _ _864 

Disorder 364 

Tattling 364 

Quarrelling _ __ __364 

Untruthf ulness  ._ _ _  .364 

III.  CONDUCT  OF  RECITATIONS _ _ 365 

General  Suggestions. ._ _ 366 

Dr.  Harris's  Description  of  a  Lifeless  School __373 

Methods  of  Instruction _ __ _ .377 

Text-Book 377 

Oral 379 

The  Two  Combined i 379 

Socratic _ 381 

Topical... ..381 

Discussion 382 

Lecture _ 383 

Laws  of  Questioning 385 

Special  Hints  to  Young  Teachers 387 

A  WORD  IX  CONCLUSION 392 

To  Superintendents ._ _ 392 

To  Teachers..  ..393 


READING 


I.    METHOD  OP  BEGINNING 

That  teachers  may  distinguish  good  methods  we  begin 
with  descriptions  of  several  of  those  most  in  Methods  of 
use.  Some  are  old,  long,  unnatural  and  reading, 
tedious,  affording  little  but  monotony  to  stimulate  the 
child's  desire  to  learn.  Others  are  shorter,  but  none 
the  less  unnatural  and  arbitrary.  Some  are  unphiloso- 
phical,  and  leave  no  cause  for  surprise  that  so  many 
children  flounder  at  the  very  threshold  of  knowledge, 
the  very  place  that  should  be  made  most  attractive. 
We  mention : 

1.  The  A  b  c  or  Alphabetic  Method. 

2.  The  Drawing  Method. 

3.  The  Word-building  Method. 

4.  The  Phonic  Method. 

5.  The  Phonetic  Method. 

6.  The  Phonotypic  Method. 

7.  The  Look-and-say  Method. 

8.  The  Object  Method. 

9.  The  Word  Method. 
10.  The  Sentence  Method. 

THE  ALPHABET,  OR  A  B  0  METHOD 

The  children  by  this  method,  are  taught  the  names 

of  the  letters,  and  they  begin  to  spell  words  at  first. 

This  attempts  learning  to  read  by  learning  to  spell. 

Spelling  may  be  learned  through  reading,  but  reading 

(9) 


10 

through  spelling  NEVER.  The  attempt  to  combine  two 
things  in  one  lesson,  by  diverting  the  learner's  attention, 
interferes  with  his  progress  in  recognizing  the  words. 

This  method  was  universally  used  years  ago,  and  even 
now  is  used  in  many  of  the  ungraded  schools.  In  the 
best  schools,  the  alphabetic  method  is  superseded  by 
some  of  the  modern  ways.  It  is  an  imperfect  method 
in  that  the  letters  do  not  guide  to  the  pronunciation  of 
the  word. 

Take  the  word  mat ;  by  the  same  method,  the  name 
of  the  first  letter  is  em  ;  the  second  letter  is  a,  and  the 
third  tee  ; — pronounced  em  a  tee ;  by  the  phonic  it 
becomes  mat. 

This  method  produces  halting,  stumbling  readers ;  it 
lays  the  foundation  for  mechanical,  unintelligible  read- 
ing, and  is  now  abandoned  by  all  good  teachers. 

THE  DRAWING  METHOD 

The  Drawing  Method  teaches  the  child  first  to  draw 
the  letter,  and  then  learn  its  name. 

Since  curiosity,  which  is  so  strong  in  the  child,  seeks 
its  gratification  in  finding  new  forms,  this  method  of 
drawing  can  be  used  as  a  means  of  training  his  eye  to 
quickness  and  accuracy  of  observation.  Lessons  should 
be  given  upon  straight,  curved  and  crooked  lines,  that 
the  children  may  know  what  is  meant  by  the  terms 
used. 

By  actually  drawing  and  naming  the  parts  of  a  letter 
its  form  and  name  as  a  whole  may  be  easily  impressed 
on  the  memory  of  the  pupil.  In  this  manner  the  learn- 
ing of  the  alphabet,  instead  of  being  a  spiritless  task, 
as  it  has  too  often  proved,  is  attractive  to  the  child 


THE    PHOKIC   METHOD  11 

and  becomes  a  valuable  aid  in  cultivating  the  sense  of 
sight. 

THE  WoKD-BuiLDi^G  METHOD 

The  plan  here  is  to  begin  with  words  of  one  letter  as 
A,  I,  0,  and  gradually  form  new,  words  by  prefixing  or 
affixing  single  letters.  The  child  is  taught  to  pronounce 
first  the  word,  then  the  letters  that  form  it.  Separate 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  and  spelling,  are  taught  by  asking 
questions  similar  to  the  following  : 

e(  What  letter  is  placed  after  a  to  form  an?" 

66  What  after  an  to  form  and?" 

{f  What  before  and  to  form  land?" 

THE  PHONIC  METHOD 

Every  intelligent  mind  will  welcome  any  means  by 
which  loose  and  bad  habits  of  enunciation  may  be  cast 
off,  and  correct  ones  formed  in  their  stead. 

Children  who  have  been  taught  and  accustomed  to 
sayjudgmunt  for  judgment,  read'n  for  reading,  an  for 
and,  muss  for  must,  parent  for  pdrent,  pass  for  pass, 
will  not  be  likely,  by  a  single  effort,  to  set  their  speech 
right.  By  well  directed  and  persevering  effort  they  can 
do  it ;  with  proper  guidance  and  encouragement  they 
will  do  it.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  elementary 
sounds  is  essential  to  success  in  the  Phonic  Method. 
It  must  be  made  a  careful  study  and  the  teacher  should 
master  it. 

The  Phonic  Method  consists  in  making  the  learner 
acquainted  with  the  powers  of  the  letters,  so  that  when 
words  are  before  him,  he  may,  by  uttering  the  sound 
of  each  letter  in  succession,  construct  for  himself  the 
sound  of  the  word.  Such  a  method,  says  John  Gill,  of 


12 

the  Normal  College,  Cheltenham,  it  is  impossible  to 
have  in  a  language  like  the  English.  A  purely  phonic 
method  is  possible  only  where  the  numbers  of  letters  and 
elementary  sounds  correspond,  where  the  same  letter 
always  represents  the  same  sound,  and  where,  in  the 
spelling  of  words,  the  numbers  of  letters  and  of  sounds 
agree.  But  these  conditions  in  English  are  impossible. 
The  letters  give  but  five-eighths  of  the  elementary 
sounds  ;  one  letter  often  represents  two  or  more  sounds  ; 
some  sounds  are  represented  by  more  than  one  letter, 
and  often  letters  are  found  not  sounded  at  all. 

The  principal  advantage  of  this  method  is,  that  it 
puts  into  the  hands  of  the  children  a  key  by  which  they 
may  be  able  to  help  themselves.  The  elementary  sounds 
must  be  known  before  the  child  can  take  a  single 
step  in  advance,  except  as  he  is  assisted  by  the  teacher. 

Another  advantage  is  that  it  teaches  the  children 
from  the  beginning  to  enunciate  distinctly  ;  many  other 
advantages  are  gained  by  combining  the  Word  and 
Phonic  Methods. 

Letters  are  elements  of  the  forms  of  words ;  simple 
sounds  are  the  elements  of  the  sounds  of  words  ;  neither 
of  these  elements  are  units  in  language.  The  child 
must  know  the  sounds  and  the  names  of  the  letters ; 
through  these  aids  he  may  be  able  to  help  himself.  This 
process,  however,  is  not  adapted  to  the  child,  until  it 
has  learned  some  words  as  wholes,  as  units  of  language, 
as  the  representations  of  thoughts. 

The  best  results  have  been  gained  by  primary 
teachers  in  using  the  Phonic  Method  as  an  auxiliary  to 
the  Word  Method,  but  not  as  a  substitute  for  it.  The 
word  must  be  the  unit  of  thought ;  it  is  the  natural  way  to 


THE    PHONOTYPIC   METHOD  13 

begin  with  the  units  of  language,  which  are  words. 
Language  deals  with  thoughts ;  words  are  symbols  of 
thought. 

With  all  plans  that  have  been  considered,  let  the 
teacher  bear  in  mind  that  children  can  never  learn  to 
read  with  any  degree  of  ease  until  they  are  able  to  call 
instantly  the  words  in  the  sentence  without  stopping  to 
analyze  them. 

By  the  method  suggested,  children  are  enabled  to 
read  with  more  interest  and  expression  in  a  far  shorter 
time  than  by  the  plans  heretofore  generally  pursued. 

THE  PHONETIC  METHOD 

The  Phonic  and  Phonetic  Methods  are  distinct ;  the 
phonetic  method  provides  signs  to  represent  all  the 
sounds  of  the  language,  using  the  common  letters  each 
to  denote  but  one  sound  of  that  letter,  and  providing 
slight  modifications  of  these  letters  to  denote  other 
sounds.  This  method  is  used  with  success  in  those 
schools  provided  with  Leigh's  Phonetic  Eeader. 

THE  PHOKOTYPIC  METHOD 

This  is  another  form  of  the  Phonic  Method,  providing 
a  character  or  letter  for  each  sound  in  the  language. 

The  pupil  is  required  to  learn  forty  or  more  letters  in 
place  of  twenty-six. 

There  are  those  who  claim  that  pupils  will  learn  both 
methods,  and  become  able  to  read  better  thereby  in  a 
given  time,  than  they  usually  do  when  taught  entirely 
from  the  common  print. 

This  method  may  be  used  with  success ;  but,  as  the 
schools  are  not  provided  with  books  on  the  Phonotypic 
plan,  we  will  not  enlarge  upon  it. 


14  BEADIKG 

THE  LOOK-AND-SAY  METHOD 

By  this  method  after  the  children  have  mastered  the 
alphabet,  all  words  are  read  without  spelling. 

Attention  is  directed  to  each  word  as  a  whole,  and 
its  sound  associated  with  it  as  a  whole. 

In  no  case  is  the  learner  allowed  to  spell  a  word  that 
he  may  afterwards  recognize  and  pronounce  it. 

The  following  advantages  are  claimed  in  favor  of  this 
method  : 

First. — For  mastering  the  word  by  the  eye. 

Second. — For  recognizing  the  word  in  the  sign,  and 
for  acquiring  practical  acquaintance  with  the  number 
of  letters  and  syllables. 

Third. — For  suitability  to  the  circumstances  of  com- 
mon schools. 

The  above  reasons  must  commend  this  method  to 
many  teachers  who  have  not  received  special  training. 
It  best  meets  the  requirements  of  class  instruction.  In 
the  class,  the  aim  is  to  bring  out  the  energies  of  all. 
This  is  done  through  emulation  and  self-respect. 

Now  when  spelling  is  permitted,  a  child  has  little  in- 
ducement to  exert  himself  to  retain  a  word  once  seen  ; 
but  let  spelling  be  forbidden,  let  the  remembrance  of 
the  word  be  thrown  on  the  eye,  and  emulation  will 
stimulate  some  to  retain  it,  and  to  give  it  when  called 
upon  ;  and  self-respect  will  be  appealed  to  in  the  others, 
not  to  require  always  to  be  told  by  a  sharper  companion. 
It  is  a  method  which  requires  no  special  preparation 
like  the  phonic,  and  therefore  may  be  entrusted  to  an 
inexperienced  teacher, 


THE  OBJECT  METHOD  15 

THE  OBJECT  METHOD 

The  children's  attention  is  first  directed  to  some 
object  with  which  they  are  familiar  by  sight,  name  and 
use. 

The  teacher  shows  the  object  to  the  children,  and  the 
name  is  given  by  the  children.  If  they  cannot  give  the 
name,  the  teacher  tells  them.  The  teacher  presents  a 
picture  of  the  object,  or  makes  a  drawing  of  it  upon 
the  board  ;  then  the  name  is  plainly  written  under  the 
drawing.  The  pupils  are  now  taught  to  distinguish 
from  one  another  the  object,  the  picture  of  it,  and  the 
work  representing  it. 

The  following  order  should  be  observed  in  teaching 

beginners  to  read  by  the  Object  Method,  as  steps  in 

used  by  N.  A.  Calkins,  Assistant  Superin-  Method, 
tendent  of  Schools  in  New  York  city. 

First  Step. — Teach  whole  words  by  sight  that  are 
already  known  by  hearing,  as  signs  of  objects,  qualities, 
and  actions. 

Second  Step. — Teach  the  analysis  of  the  word  by  its 
elementary  sounds. 

Third  "Step. — Teach  the  analysis  of  the  word  by  the 
names  of  its  letters,  and  their  order  in  spelling  it. 

Fourth  Step. — Require  the  pupils  to  pronounce  the 
word ;  sound  it ;  spell  it. 

Fifth  Step. — Group  words  into  phrases  and  sentences. 

The  children  will  learn  new  words  by  comparing  the 
known  words  with  the  unknown. 


16  READING 

THE  WORD  METHOD 
Directions 

1.  Call  the  attention  of  the  children  to  some  object. 

2.  Ask  questions  about  the  object. 

3.  Talk  to  the  children  about  the  object. 

4.  Ask  the  children  to  give  the  name  of  the  object. 

5.  Show  a  picture  of  the  object. 

6.  Make  a  drawing  on  the  board  of  the  object. 

7.  Print  and  write  the  word  on  the  board. 

8.  Let  the  pupils  copy  the  word  on  their  slates. 

9.  Group  words  into  phrases. 

10.  Group  words  into  sentences. 

11.  After  the  pupils  learn  one  sentence,  use  the  words 
in  making  other  sentences. 

12.  Select   words   that   are   the    names    of   familiar 
objects. 

Cautions 

1.  Present  only  two  or  three    new  words   for  each 
lesson. 

2.  Teach  the  children  to  recognize  words  as  signs  of 
ideas. 

3.  At   first  give  no  attention  to  elements  of   which 
words    are    composed,  as  the   elementary  sounds,  and 
letters. 

4.  Attempt  no  spelling  of  any  of  the  words. 

Results 

1.  Knowledge. 

2.  Naturalness  of  expression. 

3.  Fluency. 


THE  WOKD   METHOD  17 

In  the  earliest  stages  of  the  course,  teaching  precedes 
Remarks.  learning ;  the  child's  steps  are  guided  and 
upheld  by  the  teacher ;  his  way  is  made  clear  for  him, 
and  his  difficulties  are  anticipated.  It  is  essential  that 
the  child  shall  have  a  liking  for  the  work  in  which  he 
is  engaged.  It  is  the  spirit  of  the  teacher  rather  than 
his  methods  that  ensures  success  in  teaching  little  ones 
to  read. 

In  the  word  method,  we  begin  by  teaching  words, 
leading  the  children  to  recognize  them  as  wholes. 
This  method  is  now  used  extensively  ;  it  was  the  method 
used  by  the  race  in  developing  the  language.  Nature 
is  the  guide  of  both  parents  and  children.  There  is  a 
fitness  in  nature's  means  that  secures  in  the  most  simple 
way  the  most  desirable  ends.  We  have  become  arti- 
ficial, mechanical  in  teaching ;  we  need  to  retrace  our 
steps  and  imitate  nature's  process. 

Nature  begins  with  objects — the  idea  first,  its  signs 
second,  and  the  ability  to  represent  the  idea      Follow 
by  its  signs  third — the  natural  order  of  learn-       plan, 
ing  language,  and  the  natural  order  of  using  it,   are 
made  to  correspond.     The  word  soon  becomes  familiar 
to  the  child.     It  is  the  object  of  thought. 

The  word  method  begins  with  words,  not  with  letters. 
In  the  word  "hat"  it  does  not  teach  first  the  letters 
h,  a,  t,  and  say  "  hat "  ;  but  it  takes  the  word  and  calls 
it  "hat",  without  any  reference  to  the  fact  that  the 
printed  word  is  made  up  of  letters. 

The  thing  before  the  sign  is  the  rule  in  teaching. 
wc^ds  that  are  not  signs  of  things  can  be      The  thing 
illustrated  by  examples  :  for  instance,  white,      sign.re 
by  showing  the  color ;  runs,  by  showing  the  act;  on  by 


18  HEADING 

showing  the  position,  etc.  By  this  method  it  will  take 
no  more  time  to  teach  the  word,  its  elementary  sounds, 
letters  and  spelling,  than  the  letters  alone  by  the  old 
way  of  teaching  the  letters  first. 

Let  the  teacher  aim  to  get  the  children  to  talk  freely. 
Hints.  If  possible,  present  a  real  object  to  the  class  : 

a  picture,  or  a  drawing.  Ask  questions  to  draw  out 
what  the  children  know  of  the  object.  You  now  have 
excited  an  interest ;  show  the  class  the  word  ;  write  or 
print  the  word  under  the  drawing ;  tell  the  children 
that  the  word  is  a  picture  of  the  real  object ;  require  the 
children  to  pronounce  it  several  times ;  print  the  word 
in  several  places  on  the  board  ;  and  require  the  children 
to  pronounce  it  in  concert. 

In  like  manner  teach  quality  words,  for  example, 
"  red  "  ;  show  an  object  which  is  red,  and  print  on  the 
board  the  words,  "a  red  cup",  and  request  pupils  to 
read  the  phrase.  That  the  plan  of  teaching  children 
to  read  by  the  word  method  may  be  made  more  clearly 
understood  and  readily  applied,  the  following  directions 
are  given  : 

Let  the  teacher  begin  by  a  familiar  conversation  with 
HOW  to  the  children  about  some  object.  It  is  of  lit- 
begin.  ^e  importance  what  words  are  taught  first, 

if  the  words  are  short  ones  and  familiar  to  the  children 
by  use  in  conversation,  and  if  the  objects  which  the 
words  represent  and  the  pictures  can  be  readily  shown. 
The  purpose  of  the  talk  and  questions  should  be  to  put 
the  child  in  conscious  possession  of  a  knowledge  of  the 
thing,  or  of  what  the  word  represents. 

"When  the  child  has  this  knowledge,  and  not  before, 
the  teacher  may  show  him  the  sign,  i.  e.,  the  word. 


WORDS  THE  OBJECT  OF  THOUGHT  19 

As  soon  as  the  word  is  presented  the  child  should 
print  it  on  the  slate.  A  little  practice  will  enable  the 
child  to  print  it  rapidly.  The  printing  will  fix  the 
word  in  the  mind. 

In  many  schools  the  children  are  taught  from  the 
first  to  write  the  word  ;  not  permitted  to  print  it,  for 
the  reason  that  in  after  life  we  use  script,  not  the 
printed  forms. 

If  the  pupils  are  receiving,  as  they  should  be,  daily 
lessons  in  writing,  they  will  soon  be  able  to  copy  the 
sentence  from  the  board  on  their  tablets. 

This  exercise  is  important  not  only  on  account  of  the 
practice  in  writing  which  it  affords,  but  for  giving  the 
children  something  attractive  and  useful  to  do,  and 
preventing  the  mischief  that  comes  from  idle  hands. 
The  teacher  should  examine  the  work  from  time  to 
time,  and  encourage  the  children  to  do  the  work  neatly 
and  correctly. 

The  child  knows  nothing  of  vowels,  consonants  and 
articulation ;  nothing  about  letters,  when  Letters  and 
he  looks  upon  the  printed  page.  sounds. 

The  word,  the  word  !  This  is  the  object  of  thought. 
The  printed  word  is  the  object  presented  to  the  mind 
of  the  child.  It  is  presented  through  the  eye.  It  is 
known  by  its  form ;  the  child  learns  to  recognize  the 
words  by  their  forms,  as  it  learns  to  recognize  other 
objects.  The  names  of  letters  are  no  guides  to  the 
correct  pronunciation  of  words,  and  they  can  be  of  no 
possible  service  to  the  children  in  learning  to  read. 

After  the  children  have  made  considerable  progress 
in  reading  words,  the  teacher  may  call  their  attention 


20  READING 

to  the  elementary  sounds  of  which  the  words  are  com- 
posed. 

Some  teachers  combine  the  Word  and  Phonic  Methods, 

Word  and         and  af tei*  tlie  W0r(i  *S  learned  bJ  signt>  teach 

Methods  elementary  sounds.  This  is  not  necessary 
combined.  to  this  plan  of  teaching  reading,  and  if  the 
teacher  thinks  best  may  be  omitted. 

Children  have  been  taught  to  read  in  a  very  few  weeks 
by  this  plan,  and  we  would  encourage  primary  teachers 
to  try  it.  It  is  useful  in  cultivating  distinctness  in 
articulation,  and  in  aiding  the  children  to  acquire  new 
words. 

When  the  pupils  have  been  made  familiar  with  the 
The  names  words  that  have  been  taught  by  sight,  so  as 
of  letters.  readily  to  pronounce  them,  and  give  their 
elementary  sounds,  the  teacher  may  call  the  attention 
of  the  children  to  the  names  of  the  letters ;  but  as  a 
rule  the  children  will  learn  the  names  of  the  letters 
soon  enough  without  any  help  from  the  teacher. 

As  soon  as  the  letters  are  taught,  by  all  means  show 
their  use  by  putting  them  together  and  making  the 
word  ;  use  the  same  letters  in  forming  new  words. 

There  is  but  little  variance  between  the  Object  Method 
and  the  Word  Method.  The  introductory  part  is  the 
same,  and  both  should  be  combined  in  order  to  interest 
the  children.  Whole  words  should  be  presented,  and 
the  pupils  required  to  pronounce  them,  without  spell- 
ing, by  sight.  Subsequently  the  analysis  of  these  words 
into  sounds  and  letters  may  be  taught. 

First,  teach  words  that  are  the  names  of  things  ;  then 
words  representing  the  names  of  qualities  and  actions. 
The  little  connective  words  and  those  that  are  used  as 


ME  SENTENCE  METHOD  21 

substitutes  for  other  words,  should  not  be  taught  until 
they  are  needed  in  the  construction  of  phrases  and 
sentences. 

THE  SENTENCE  METHOD 

In  this  method  the  teacher  does  not  begin  with  the 
letters,  nor  with  separate  words,  but  with  words  in  com- 
bination, that  express  a  thought.  Using  this  combina- 
tion of  words  as  a  unit,  the  separate  words  are  learned, 
as  the  separate  letters  are  learned  by  the  Word  Method, 
that  is,  without  special  effort  and  almost,  if  not  quite, 
unconsciously. 

In  teaching  by  this  method  let  it  be  the  aim  of  the 
teacher  to  teach  not  so  much  separate  sounds,  letters 
and  words,  as  the  proper  expression  of  thought. 

The  letters  and  words  must  be  known,  but  as  they 
will  necessarily  become  known  by  this  method  without 
much  special  teaching,  they  are  regarded  and  treated 
as  of  secondary  importance  for  the  time  being. 

The  attention  of  the  children  should  be  directed  to 
the  thought.  To  this  end  real  objects  and  facts  are  at 
first  employed  to  appeal  to  the  senses  and  to  demand 
of  the  child  words  to  give  the  thought  oral  expression. 

In  learning  to  talk,  children  acquire  ideas  from  ob- 
jects, and  then  seek  language  to  express  them.  It  re- 
quires a  combination  of  words  to  express  a  thought,  or 
to  give  birth  to  a  new  idea  or  thought. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  this  method  over  others 
are  : 

First. — It  is  a  natural  way — teaching  the  child  to 
read  very  much  as  he  learned  to  talk. 

Second. — The  attention  of  the  child  is  directed  to 
the  expression  of  the  thought ;  hence  he  reads  easily 
and  naturally. 


22  HEADING 

Third. — It  makes  the  child  thoughtful,  and  hence 
cultivates  his  intelligence. 

This  method  was  first  systematically  used  in  the 
schools  of  Binghamton,  N.  Y.,  and  is  fully  explained  in 
"The  Sentence  Method  of  Teaching  Heading "y  by  G. 
L.  Farnham,  at  that  time  Superintendent  of  Schools. 

II.     PKIMAKY  READING 

Give  special  attention  to  the  primary  classes  in  read- 
ing ;  if  a  child  is  not  taught  to  read  well  during  Ms 
first  tivo  years  in  school,  he  will  probably  be  a  poor 
reader  through  life. 

Directions 

1.  Train  the  pupils  to  pronounce  the  words  readily 
at  sight. 

(a)  Print    or    write  the   words   on  the  board  in 

columns  ;  pupils  to  pronounce  them  at  sight. 
(Z>)  Write  difficult  words  on  the  board,  and  sylla- 
bicate  them ;     mark   the    accented   syllables, 
pupils  to  pronounce  them. 

(c)  Require  the  pupils  to  pronounce  the  words 
forward  ;  reverse. 

(d)  Require  the  pupils  to  bring  in  a  portion  or  all 
of  the  reading  lesson  upon  the  slate  ;   pupil? 
read  the  lesson  from  the  slate. 

(e)  Alternate. 

Cautions 

1.  Present  to  the  pupils  only  one  difficulty  at  a  time. 

2.  Never  permit  the  pupils  to  spell  words  in  reading. 

3.  Insist  upon  correct  articulation  and  pronunciation. 
If  the  pupils  in  the  first  lessons  of  reading  are  taught 

correctly,  they  will  not  spell  words  audibly.        Remarks. 


PBIMABY  BEADING  23 

Many  of  the  common  faults  in  reading  may  be  traced 
to  the  improper  methods  in  use  during  the  first  lessons 
in  this  subjectc  Bad  habits  at  this  period  usually  cling 
to  the  pupils  during  all  their  school  days,  and  often 
seriously  affect  their  entire  future  progress. 

The  first  lessons  in  reading  are  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance, and  they  should  be  given  in  a  proper  manner. 

To  do  this  successfully  there  must  be  a  system  in  the 
plans  pursued. 

The  pupils  must  be  familiar  with  the  words  of  the 
lesson,  so  that  they  can  readily  pronounce      Reading 
them  at  sight.  words- 

The  teacher  should  introduce  a  short  preliminary 
exercise,  for  calling  the  words  at  sight,  as  follows  : 

Teacher  and  children  alternating  one  word  each  ; 
boys  and  girls  alternating  one  word  each ;  careless 
pupils  alternating  with  class  ;  each  pupil  reading  a  line 
as  rapidly  as  possible. 

In  no  instance  should  the  teacher  let  a  pupil  stop  to 
spell  a  word.  The  plan  is  in  violation  of  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  teaching.  It  attempts  to  compel  the 
child  to  do  two  things  at  the  same  time,  and  to  do  both 
in  an  unnatural  manner,  viz  :  to  learn  reading  and 
spelling  simultaneously,  and  reading  through  spelling. 

Eeading  has  to  deal  with  sounds  and  signs  of  thoughts. 
Spelling  rests  on  a  habit  of  the  eye,  which  is  best  ac- 
quired by  writing. 

In  attempting  to  teach  reading  through  spelling  the 
effort  distracts  the  attention  from  the  thought ;  reading 
furnishes  facilities  for  teaching  spelling;  but  spelling 
does  not  furnish  a  suitable  means  for  teaching  reading. 


24  HEADING 

If  spelling  is  permitted,  a  love  of  reading  is  not  enkin- 
dled ;  good  readers  are  not  produced. 

The  teacher  should  be  familiar  with  the  sounds  of  the 
Phonics.  letters,  and  require  the  pupils  to  practise  on 
them  two  or  three  minutes  daily.  Let  it  be  a  lively 
exercise,  and  insist  upon  clear,  distinct  articulation. 
Attend  to  one  difficult  point  at  a  time ;  see  that  the 
pupils  understand  it  and  are  able  to  reproduce  whatever 
you  teach  them. 

Further  Directions 

1.  Train  the  pupils  to  read  in  natural  tones. 

(a)  Eequest  the  pupil  to  look  off  the  book  and 

tell  what  he  reads. 
(V)  Select    a    good     reader ;     request    pupils    to 

imitate. 
(c)  Teacher  illustrates  how  a  sentence  should  be 

read. 

2.  The  teacher  should  illustrate  and  define  difficult 
words. 

(a)  Illustrate  by  objects,  pictures,  drawings   and 
diagrams. 

3.  No   definitions   should  be   given  of  those  words 
whose  meaning  can  be  inferred  from  the  context. 

4.  Every  piece  should  be  carefully  studied  before  it 
is  read  aloud. 

Eeading  should  not  be  a  mere  mechanical  exercise. 
Remarks.  The  end  of  reading  is  not  to  give  vocal  utter- 
ance to  a  succession  of  words,  but  to  give  expression  to 
thought  and  feeling. 

Reading  is  the  most  important  subject  taught  in 
school.  It  is  specially  important  that  it  be  thoroughly 
taught  in  primary  classes.  The  "sing-song  drawl " 


MAKE   HASTE   SLOWLY  25 

and  "  nasal   twang ",   which  so  often   prevail   in  the 
school-room,  should  be  avoided. 

Almost  all  children  can  be  taught  to  read  well ;  they 
imitate,  unconsciously  and  naturally,  the  voices  of  their 
playmates. 

Many  of  the  teachers  are  too  ambitious  in  one  direc- 
tion :  that  is,  to  promote  pupils  to  higher  TOO  difficult 
books  than  they  are  qualified  to  comprehend.  selections- 

This  is  a  great  mistake.  Perhaps  three-fifths  of  the 
pupils  of  our  country  are  reading  in  books  which  they 
do  not  understand,  or  in  which  they  take  no  interest. 
This  is  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  mechanical  read- 
ing ;  through  this  error  in  judgment  the  pupils  have 
acquired  a  drawling  way  ;  a  lifeless,  mechanical  style. 

I  am  glad  to  admit  that  a  reformation  has  begun  in 
this  department  of  instruction,  but  it  will    Reformation 
need    the    constant  and    varied   efforts    of    needed- 
teachers  and  parents  for  years  in  order  to  overcome  the 
effects  that  have  already  resulted  from  past  negligence. 

Let  the  teacher  select  (from  some  book  or  magazine) 
a  story  which  he  will  be  sure  shall  interest  suggestions. 
the  pupils. 

Let  him  give  the  book  containing  it  to  a  pupil,  ask- 
ing him  to  read  the  story  over  a  few  times,  to  become 
familiar  with  it ;  and  at  or  near  the  close  of  school, 
let  the  pupil  read  it  aloud  to  his  schoolmates. 

As  he  reads,  do  not  discourage  him  by  frequent  inter- 
ruptions, but  occasionally,  when  he  relapses  into  a 
drawl,  repeat  the  passage,  kindly,  in  a  better  way,  and 
ask  him  to  notice  and  imitate  your  manner. 

When  he  has  finished,  read  to  them  yourself  some 


26  READING 

other  good  story,  and  let  your  style  be  worthy  of  imita- 
tion. 

Let  the  standard  of  good  reading  be  its  resemblance 
Reading  ^°  g00^-  conversation.  The  pupils  may  be 
sentences.  je(j  to  attend  to  the  thoughts  expressed,  by 
requiring  them  to  find  out  what  the  sentences  tell  with- 
out reading  them  aloud.  The  teacher  may  aid  them 
by  proceeding  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  following  : 
Kequest  the  class  to  study  the  first  sentence,  and  each 
member  to  raise  a  hand  when  able  to  tell  what  the  sen- 
tence is  about.  Call  upon  different  pupils  to  state,  in 
their  own  language,  what  the  sentence  tells ;  in  this 
way  they  will  readily  learn  to  read  with  easy  conversa- 
tional tones. 

Special  care  should  be  taken  in  this  step  to  train 
Distinct  pupils  in  habits  of  clearness  and  distinctness 
enunciation.  Q£  enunciation  ;  also  to  read  in  an  easy,  speak- 
ing voice.  Overcome  the  faults  in  reading  by  taking 
up  one  kind  at  a  time,  and  continue  the  practice  until 
the  pupils  clearly  perceive  the  fault  and  take  proper 
means  to  correct  it. 

As  a  requisite  essential  to  success,  the  teacher  of  read- 
ing should  be  a  good  reader.  With  proper 

The  teacher  i    • ,   •  •» 

should  be  a  management  it  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  make 
good  reader.  Cj1ji(jren  rea(j  wej^  an(j  even  the  teacher  who 

is  a  tolerable  reader  may  teach  pupils  to  read.  That 
children  have  learned  to  read  under  such  teachers  I  am 
willing  to  admit,  because  the  fact  is  evident ;  but  that 
they  have  been  taught  by  their  masters  I  do  not  admit, 
for  it  is  impossible  for  any  person  to  teach  well  what  he 
does  not  understand. 

If  a  child  has  sometimes  learned  to  read  under  an 


DEFINING  VOICE  27 

incompetent  instructor,  it  has  been,  not  because  of  the 
teacher,  but  in  spite  of  him  ;  and  the  question  is,  not 
how  much  he  has  learned,  but  how  much  he  would  have 
learned  had  the  teacher  been  qualified  to  teach  him. 

The  young  pupiFs  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  words 
is  limited.     One  object  of  reading  is  to  in-     Difficuit 
crease  the  knowledge  of  words.     No  defini-     words- 
tion  should  be  given  of  those  words  whose  meaning  can 
be  inferred  from  the  context.    (See  page  23).    Kecourse 
should  be  had  to  a  dictionary  only  when  the  pupil  can- 
not think  out  the  meaning  for  himself. 

The  child  learns  the  meaning  of  words  by  hearing 
them  used — seldom  by  formal  definition. 

The  teacher  may  impress  the  idea  by  resorting  to 
objects  ;  this  is  the  natural  way.  Sometimes  pictures 
may  be  at  hand  to  throw  light  upon  the  word  ;  again, 
a  drawing  may  be  given  at  the  board  to  illustrate  the 
meaning  of  the  word. 

In  no  case  should  a  definition  be  committed  to  mem- 
ory and  mechanically  recited.    The  meaning     Defining 
should  be  inferred  from  the  context,  and  the     words, 
pupil  requested  to  use  the  word  correctly  in  a  short 
sentence. 

Let  the  pupil  tell  what  the  word  means  in  his  own 
language. 

A  definition  is  a  general  truth,  a  deduction  ;  children 
should  be  thought  primary  truths ;  and,  as  their  reason 
develops,  deduce  the  definitions,  rules  and  principles. 
Develop  correct  ideas  ;  then  give  definitions.  We  must 
not  encourage  teachers  to  require  pupils  to  commit  the 
definitions  to  memory  in  the  primary  reading  books, 


28  HEADING 

but  we  should  insist  that  the  pupils  understand  the 
meaning  of  the  words  used. 

Teachers  sometimes  instruct  pupils  to  stop  and  count 
"Mind  the  " one  "  a^  a  comma,  "  one,  two",  at  a  semi- 
pauses."  colon,  etc.  This  leads  to  a  mechanical,  un- 
natural style  of  reading.  First  attend  to  the  reading 
of  sentences,  and  lead  the  pupils  to  see  how  the  pauses 
aid  in  understanding  the  meaning.  Do  not  teach  read- 
ing as  if  attention  to  " pauses"  were  the  chief  object 
to  be  attained. 

Keciting  definitions  of  pauses  is  useless  and  leads  to 
waste  of  time.  Teach  the  use  of  the  pauses,  instead  of 
the  definition  of  them.  A  few  teachers  pay  no  attention 
to  the  explanation  of  the  words,  but  turn  their  attention 
almost  entirely  to  the  names  and  the  pronunciation  ; 
important  points,  to  be  sure,  but  by  no  means  the  life- 
giving  elements  of  good  reading. 

Pure  tone. — This  is  a  clear,  cheerful  tone.  It  is 
Tone  qualities.  the  language  of  common  conversation. 

Rotund. — This  is  the  pure  tone,  rounded,  deepened 
and  intensified.  It  is  the  language  of  sublimity, 
grandeur,  awe,  reverence. 

Aspirate. — This  is  whispered  utterance.  It  is  the 
language  of  hate,  fear,  secrecy. 

Gutteral. — This  is  the  sepulchral  tone  and  has  its 
resonance  in  the  throat.  It  is  the  language  of  hate, 
rage,  contempt. 

Pectoral. — This  is  low,  pure  tone.  It  is  the  language 
of  deep  feeling,  sorrow. 

Falsetto. — This  is  a  very  high  tone.  It  is  the  lan- 
guage of  irritability,  etc. 


QUALITIES   OF   THE   VOICE  29 

A  particular  stress  of  voice  given  to  certain  words,  or 
parts  of  a  discourse,  or  a  distinctive  utter-  Emphasis, 
ance  of  words  specially  significant,  is  called  emphasis. 

A  new  idea  or  fact,  one  now  presented  for  the  first 
time,  constitutes  the  emphatic  word  or  words. 

That  which  presents  no  new  or  dominant  fact  or 
thought  is  unemphatic  :  as  clauses  of  repetition,  antici- 
pation, sequence,  subordination,  knowledge  beforehand. 

Do  not  require  children  to  commit  the  rules  to  mem- 
ory in  reading.  They  are  hindrances  instead       Ruies  in 
of  helps.     If  the  teachers  know  how  to  read,       reading, 
those  aids  in  which  many  school-books  abound  are  worse 
than  useless,  because  positively  injurious. 

The  competent  teacher  needs  but  two  rules  by  which 
to  be  guided  in  teaching  the  pupils  to  read  : 

First — Make  the  pupils  understand  what  it  is  to  be 
read. 

Second. — Require  them  to  read  naturally. 

To  expect  a  child  to  read  what  it  does  not  understand 
is  unreasonable,  and  yet  nothing  is  more  common.  It 
is  idle  to  put  marks,  rules  and  directions,  whether  by 
words  or  characters,  into  books  intended  to  be  read  by 
children,  for  the  reason  that  they  are  seldom  or  never 
used. 

The  teacher  should  carefully  study  the  reading  lesson; 
should  be  familiar  with  the  pronunciation  of 

*  .  The  teach- 

every  word,  including  its  literal  and  its  re-      er's  prep- 

A  '  TT       i        ij      •        ^  -i  aration. 

ceived  meaning.     He  should  give  the  pupils 
the  history  of  the  author  and  some  of  his  prominent 
characteristics, — this    will,  add    to   the    interest.     He 
should  awaken  thought  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils, — 
this  will  secure  interest.     It  matters  not  how  simple  the 


30  BEADING 

lesson  may  be,  previous  preparation  is  indispensable. 
Previous  study  will  add  new  power  and  generate  better 
methods,  by  means  of  which  success  will  be  insured. 
The  teacher  will  become  independent,  self-reliant,  and 
a  "  law  unto  himself". 

III.     INTERMEDIATE  READING 

Directions 

1.  Teach  and  train  the  pupils  to  understand  : 

(a)  The  prominent  objects  mentioned  ; 

(b)  The  prominent  facts  mentioned  concerning 
the  object ; 

(c)  What  they  read,  so  as  to  be  able  to  tell  the 
story,  or  the  principal  facts  in  the  lesson  ; 

(d)  The  connected  thought,  so  as  to  express  it 
orally  and  written. 

Caution 

1.  Attend  to  one  subject  of  criticism  at  a  time,  and 
require  pupils  to  correct  errors. 

2.  Practice  on  one  sentence  at  a  time. 

3.  See  that  all  the  pupils  understand  the  thought, 
and  are  able  to  express  it. 

4.  Examine  the  subject  carefully  before  reading. 

Results 

The  pupils  in  the  Intermediate  Classes  in  Reading 
'  should  be  able  : — 

1.  To  pronounce  the  words  accurately. 

2.  To  define  the  words. 

3.  To  understand  the  subject-matter. 


INTERMEDIATE  READING  31 

4.  To  explain  the  language. 

5.  To  account  for  marks  of  punctuation. 

6.  To  point  out  what  is  true,  beautiful  and  good  in 
the  sentiment. 

7.  To  show  the  manner  of  delivery,  and  give  reason 
for  it. 

The  number  of  those  who  can  be  properly  called  good 
readers  in  our  schools  is  small ;  but  how  Remarks, 
large  is  the  number  who  can  read  quite  indifferently, 
or  very  poorly. 

As  a  general  thing  it  must  be  admitted  that  reading 
has  not  been  well  taught  in  our  schools.  It  has  re- 
ceived formal  attention  and  frequent  inattention.  Time 
enough  is  given  to  the  exercise,  but  not  enough  atten- 
tion. 

The  elocutionary  part  of  reading  should  receive  but 
little  attention  in  the  intermediate  classes. 

-rrr..,  .,  T  ...          ..       An  iritellec- 

With  so  many  pupils  under  your  training,  it  tuai  ex- 
cannot  be  expected  that  you  will  go  into  all 
the  minutiae  of  elocutionary  drill.  Your  aim  must  be 
to  teach  well  what  you  undertake  to  teach.  You  can- 
not even  hope  to  make  all  your  pupils  accomplished 
elocutionists,  but  you  can  make  them  good  and  intelli- 
gent readers.  When  you  find  a  pupil  who  takes  to 
elocution  it  may  be  well  to  encourage  it,  but  not  to  the 
neglect  nor  the  expense  of  other  subjects  of  instruction. 
It  may  be  asked,  what  is  good  reading  ?  I  call  that  good 
reading  when  a  person  reads  distinctly,  giving  the  sense 
with  such  intonation  and  emphasis  as  to  be  pleasant  to 
the  hearer,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  easily  heard 
and  readily  understood. 


32  READING 

Take,  for  example,  the  following  beautiful  selection, 
An  niustra-     an(l  see  now  niany  pertinent  questions  may 
be  asked  in  reference  to  it. 

NELLY 

Nelly  sat  under  the  apple  tree, 
And  watched  the -shadows  of  leaves  at  play, 

And  heard  the  hum  of  the  honey  bee 

Gathering  sweets  through  the  sunny  day. 

Nelly's  brown  hands  in  her  lap  were  laid  ; 

Her  head  inclined  with  a  gentle  grace  ; 
A  wandering  squirrel  was  not  afraid 

To  stop  and  peer  in  her  quiet  face. 

Nelly  was  full  of  a  pure  delight, 

Born  of  the  beauty  of  earth  and  sky, 
Of  the  wavering  boughs,  and  the  sunshine  bright, 

And  the  snowy  clouds  that  went  sailing  by. 

Nelly  forgot  that  her  dress  was  old, 
Her  hands  were  rough  and  her  feet  were  bare  ; 

For  round  her  the  sunlight  poured  its  gold, 
And  her  cheeks  were  kissed  by  the  summer  air. 

And  the  distant  hills  in  their  glory  lay, 
And  soft  to  her  ear  came  the  robin's  call : 

'Twas  sweet  to  live  on  that  summer  day, 
For  the  smile  of  God  was  over  all. 

And  Nelly  was  learning  the  lesson  sweet, 

That  when  the  spirit  is  full  of  care, 
And  we  long  our  father  and  God  to  meet, 

AVe  may  go  to  nature,  and  find  him  there. 

1.  Where  did  Nelly  sit  ? 

2.  Wha  two  things  did  she  do  ? 

3.  Wha^  is  meant  by  the  leaves  at  play  ? 

4.  What  were  the  bees  doing? 

5.  What  is  said  of  Nelly's  hands? 

6.  What  is  said  of  her  head  ? 

7.  What  is  said  of  the  squirrel? 


A   MODEL  LESSOR  33 

8.  Of  what  was  Nelly  full  ? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  being  full  of  pure  delight? 

10.  Of  what  four  things  was  it  born  ? 

11.  What  is  meant  by  being  born  of  these  things? 

12.  What  did  Nelly  forget  ? 

13.  Why  did  she  forget  these  things  ? 

14.  What  is  meant  by  the  sunlight  pouring  its  gold  ? 

15.  What  is  meant  by  kissed  by  the  summer  air  ? 

16.  What  is  said  of  the  distant  hills  ? 

17.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  4w  in  their  glory  lay  "  ? 

18.  What  is  said  of  the  robin  ? 

19.  Why  was  it  sweet  to  live  on  that  summer  day  ? 

20.  What  lesson  was  Nelly  learning  ? 

21.  What  is  the  meaning  ot  gathering  ?  Inclined  ?  Peer  ?  Boughs  ?  Nature  ? 

22.  Make  sentences  in  which  these  words  in  some  of  their  forms  shall  be 
used  correctly. 

23.  Write  a  short  composition  about  Nelly. 

The  piece  is  descriptive  and  should  be  so  read  as  to 
give  the  hearer  a  clear  idea  of  the  scenes  Directions, 
described.  State  each  thing  mentioned  as  though  you 
were  telling  some  person  what  you  had  seen. 

The  frequent  or  occasional  study  of  reading  lessons 
in  this  manner  will  be  attended  with  two  advantages. 
The  pupils  will  read  them  better,  for  they  will  have  a 
sympathy  for  the  author,  and  a  more  intelligent  percep- 
tion of  the  meaning. 

The  answering  of  the  question  will  prove  very  ser- 
viceable, by  unfolding  the  sense  of  the  piece,  and  thus 
enabling  one  to  read  it  more  understandingly.  It  will 
produce  thought)  and  whenever  we  produce  thought  we 
secure  interest. 

In  intermediate  classes  constant  attention  should  be 
given  to  punctuation,  accent,  inflection,  emphasis,  and 
correct  pronunciation. 

Explanations  of  historical,  biographical,  or  scientific 
allusions,  should  be  given  by  the  teacher  and  reviewed 


34 


BEADING 


in  subsequent  recitation.     Higher  classes  may  be  taught 
the  rhetorical  divisions.     Thus  : 

a.  Letters. 

b.  Dialogues. 

c.  History. 

d.  Essays. 

e.  Orations,  etc. 
a.  Pastoral. 

#.  Lyric. 

c.  Epic. 

d.  Dramatic. 

e.  Elegy. 


A.  Composition. 


1.  Prose, 


and 


2.  Poetry. 


B.  Subject  Matter. 


C.  Discourse. 


'1.  Humorous. 

2.  Pathetic; 

3.  Sublime. 
'1.  Narrative. 

2.  Descriptive. 

3.  Didactic. 


General 
remarks. 


No  subject  is  of  more  importance  than  how  to  teach 
reading  understandingly.  Good  reading  is 
calculated  to  develop  the  mind,  the  body, 

and  the  imagination.     Although  so  important,  yet  it 

is  sadly  neglected. 

Elocution  is  the  art  of  speaking  so  as  to  be  heard,  so 
as  to  be  felt,  so  as  to  impress.  The  first  essential  is  to 
speak  or  read  so  as  to  be  heard  distinctly.  Never  speak 
above  or  below  your  natural  voice  ;  if  you  do  so,  the 
effect  will  be  lost.  The  three  great  rules  that  all  should 
observe  in  reading  or  speaking  are  :  "  Be  sure  you  have 
something  to  say  ;  say  it  as  well  as  you  can  say  it ;  and  stop 


ATTEND   TO   SPECIAL   FAULTS  35 

when  you  are  clone. "  Speak  so  that  the  listener  may 
understand  you  ;  speak  so  as  to  be  felt,  hence  be  in 
earnest ;  if  you  do  not  feel  what  you  say,  you  cannot 
expect  your  hearers  to  feel  it. 

If  you  have  a  fault,  attend  to  it ;  overcome  it  by  prac- 
tice. Much  time  must  be  taken  in  correct-  Attend  to 
ing  bad  habits  of  reading,  but  you  must  take  faults, 
the  time.  And  whatever  you  do,  be  sure  to  teach  the 
pupils  to  do  it  in  the  right  way.  If  the  teacher  wishes 
to  succeed  he  must  learn  how  intonation  and  articula- 
tion are  to  be  taught.  Before  he  can  teach  it  he  must 
learn  it.  It  can  be  acquired  only  through  study. 

Kules  in  books  might  as  well  be  omitted ;  correct 
reading  might  be  taught  by  example.  The  object  of 
teaching  reading  is  to  make  good  readers.  Before  good 
reading  and  good  speaking  can  be  taught  it  is  necessary 
to  learn  how  to  articulate  distinctly  and  pronounce  cor- 
rectly. If  you  are  careless  in  one  single  point,  your 
pupils  will  be  careless  not  only  on  that  point  but  on 
others. 

In  reading  you  must  give  each  sound  its  true  value. 
The  requirements  in  reading  are  t  ,vo-f  old  : 

first. — To  express  rightly  what  you  read  ;  and, 

tiecond. — To  do  this  pleasantly  and  naturally. 

A  perfect  understanding  of  what  you  read  is  the 
foundation ;  you  must  understand  the  thoughts  of  the 
author  and  make  the  thoughts  your  own. 

It  is  the  exception  to  find  good  readers  in  our  schools  ; 
the  reason  is  because  pupils  are  not  required  to  study 
the  lesson  as  in  other  branches. 

Study  gives  force,  meaning,  beauty,  and  power  to  the 
passage.  After  the  pupils  can  speak  distinctly,  they 


36  BEADING 

should  be  taught  to  express  the  sense,  to  give  the  exact 
meaning.  In  no  other  way  can  this  be  taught  than 
through  study  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  They  must 
read  and  think. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  how  to  stand,  and  they  should 
Posture.  not  be  allowed  to  utter  a  word  until  they  as- 
sume a  position  to  give  full  force  to  their  utterance ; 
they  should  not  be  allowed  to  appear  awkward. 

Do  not  allow  your  pupils  to  mumble  words,  smother 
sounds,  and  thus  destroy  the  sense  of  a  passage. 

The  position  should  be  perfectly  easy,  natural,  and 
graceful ;  the  posture  should  indicate  the  sentence  to 
be  spoken.  Insist  that  your  pupils  always  take  an  easy, 
graceful  position  in  reading  or  speaking. 

It  is  important  to  know  how  to  breathe  properly.  It 
Breath.  is  well  to  exercise  the  lungs  before  beginning 
to  read.  The  power  of  the  reader  or  speaker  consists 
in  having  perfect  control  of  his  breathing,  so  as  to 
utter  his  words  in  the  proper  and  most  effective  man- 
ner. It  is  only  when  you  have  perfect  control  of  the 
breathing  that  you  can  give  full  expression  to  words 
and  sentences. 

Let  me  caution  you  against  placing  dependence  upon 
caution.  rules  f or  inflection  of  the  voice  given  in  read- 
ing books.  All  that  you  need  is  fully  to  understand 
the  thought ;  when  you  have  the  thought  fully,  you 
will  know  all  about  inflection  of  the  voice.  If  a  per- 
son cannot  translate  what  -he  reads  into  his  own  lan- 
guage, he  most  assuredly  does  not  understand  it.  If 
you  cannot  bring  out  in  your  own  language  the  full 
meaning  of  the  lesson,  you  are  not  the  one  to  teach, 


MECHANICAL  READING  37 

and  you  should  either  adopt  some  other  work,  or  go 
through  a  rigid  course  of  training. 

A  great  deal  of  teaching  in  reading  is  a  positive  in- 
jury to  schools,  and  all  because  the  teacher  does  not 
know  how  to  teach.  "  Practice  makes  perfect ; "  rap- 
idity and  correctness  are  attained  only  through  frequent 
repetition.  No  one  ever  arises  at  distinction  by  sitting 
with  arms  folded ;  you  must  be  willing  to  think,  to 
exercise,  to  labor.  It  is  not  an  easy  thing  to  become  a 
good  reader  ;  it  is  acquired  only  through  practice — con- 
tinual practice.  There  is  no  other  way  than  through 
practice. 

The  following  rules  are  taken  from  "  Kidd's  Elocu- 
tion ".  They  should  be  carefully  studied  and  practised  : 

First. — Understand  well  what  is  read. 

Second. — See  to  it  that  pupils  never  read  without  fulfilling  the 
conditions  of  proper  position  and  posture. 

Make  them  take  the  position  God  intended  them  to  take ; 
train,  not  teach  :  there  is  a  difference  between  the  two. 

Third. — Insist  upon  frequent  and  natural  breathing.  Good 
breathing  is  essential  to  health. 

Fourth. — Reach  the  heart  of  the  pupil.  This  is  done  by  in- 
teresting them  ;  by  making  them  understand  what  they  read. 

Fifth. — Cultivate  a  perfectly  easy,  distinct,  and  natural  voice  ; 
avoid  all  labored  efforts  ;  let  the  voice  come  out  full.  Let  pro- 
nunciation be  correct,  inflection  natural ;  give  the  best  models, 
but  never  rules.  Make  pupils  repeat  the  pronunciation  of  words 
they  are  in  the  habit  of  mis-pronouncing.  Modulation  and  into- 
nation should  be  varied  but  always  natural. 

Sixth. — Have  your  pupils  speak  with  naturalness.  If  the  sub- 
ject be  understood  anyone  will  speak  naturally.  Train  them  to 
speak  by  the  highest  standard  they  possess. 

Seventh. — Be  in  earnest.  If  the  pupil  has  not  an  earnest  man- 
ner, it  proves  that  he  does  not  understand  his  subject. 


38  READING 

Teacher,  whatever  else  you  may  teach,  do  not  con- 
Necessary  sider  the  reading  exercise  an  unimportant 
conditions.  ou^  Teach  and  train  the  pupils  to  be 
readers.  It  is  the  art  of  arts,  and  in  it  are  the  germs 
of  growth  and  development. 

We  read  in  the  Bible  at  the  eighth  chapter  of  Nehe- 
miah,  eighth  verse,  how  they  used  to  read  in  the  olden 
times  : 

"  So  they  read  in  the  book  in  the  law  of  God  distinctly,  and 
gave  the  sense,  and  caused  them  to  understand  the  reading." 

There  are  three  kinds  of  reading  that  are  often  con- 
founded ;  mechanical  reading,  intelligent  reading,  and 
intellectual  reading. 

Mechanical  reading,  per  se,  is  no  reading  at  all ;  it  is 
but  a  form  of  voice  training.  It  may  include  pronun- 
ciation, articulation,  enunciation,  inflection,  tone  pause, 
harmony,  rhythm,  and  emphasis.  A  child  may  learn 
every  one  of  these,  in  a  foreign  language, — learn  them 
to  perfection,  if  he  be  well  drilled  in  them  by  means  of 
direction  and  imitation,  and  yet  not  understand  one 
word  of  what  he  reads  while  he  gives  them. 

An  intelligent  reader  is  one  who  understands  what 
he  reads,  who  takes  in  the  author's  thought.  There 
are  various  degrees  of  intelligent  reading.  One  person 
takes  in  the  meaning  vaguely,  another  more  clearly, 
another  quite  clearly  and  definitely.  It  is  not  possible 
for  a  young  child  to  be  more  than  an  intelligent  reader, 
but  the  power  should  come  to  him  as  he  grows  older. 
Yet  how  many  adults  there  are  who  do  never  get  beyond 
the  child's  power  of  reading.  Take,  for  instance,  the 
well-informed  man  who  never  will  be  wise  :  he  is  emi- 


INTELLECTUAL  BEADING  39 

nently  an  intelligent  reader,  but  there  is  no  hope  for 
him  that  he  ever  will  become  an  intellectual  reader. 

Intellectual  reading  is  not  only  a  taking  in,  clearly 
and  definitely,  of  the  author's  meaning,  but  it  is  also  a 
ready  recognition  of  the  relation  of  that  meaning,  a 
prompt  assimilation  of  it,  and  a  consequent  growth. 
This  is  the  kind  of  reading  that  reigns  in  the  student's 
den  and  the  philosopher's  study.  That  man  who  has 
the  original  power,  or  the  acquired  habit, — which  is 
often  more  than  an  equivalent  for  the  original  power, — 
to  grasp  readily  and  clearly  the  meaning  of  what  he 
reads,  is  one  whom  all  others  may  well  envy.  And  yet 
this  power,  valuable  beyond  calculation,  may  be  given 
to  every  child  in  our  schools,  if  we  can  but  find  the 
right  way  to  secure  it  for  him. 

The  question  then  is  :  How  shall  we  train  our  children 
so  that  they  shall  become  not  only  intelligent  but  intel- 
lectual readers  ? — so  that  they  shall  become  not  only 
intellectual  silent  readers,  but  also  accomplished  oral 
readers  ? 

By  assigning  to  the  lesson  in  voice-training  all  those 
exercises  which  pertain  to  voice-culture  and  Readin 
discipline  of  the  organs,  which  drill  in  pro- 
nunciation  and  a  consideration  of  emphasis 
and  pauses,  illustrated  by  mistakes  taken  from  yester- 
day's lesson  and  difficulties  in  to-day's,  we  shall  relieve 
the  reading  lesson  proper  of  the  necessity  of  taking  note 
of  all  that  machinery  which  produces  effect,  and  leave 
the  teacher  and  class  time  and  opportunity  to  study  the 
thought  the  passage  contains,  and  to  give  it  a  free  and 
natural  expression.  Let  it  be  understood  by  the  class 
as  well  as  the  teacher,  J;hat_the_reading  lesson  should 


40  BEADING 

be  a  clear,  clean-cut  process  of  thought  carried  on  to 
expression,  and  should  not  be  interrupted  by  continued, 
trivial  and  harassing  corrections.  What  is  more  pain- 
ful than  to  see  a  child  rise  in  his  class,  full  of  the  thought 
the  passage  contains,  confident  of  his  power  to  give  it 
good  expression,  his  eye  a-kindle  and  his  cheeks  aglow, 
and  then  to  see  him  suddenly  brought  to  a  blank  stand- 
still by  a  dozen  upraised  hands  and  snapping  fingers, 
because,  forsooth,  he  has  omitted  an  "  a/'  a  "  the/9  or 
mis-called  some  simple  word  he  knew  quite  well,  or 
skipped  some  useless  comma  ? 

Where  such  practices  are  allowed,  the  reading  lesson 
becomes  a  mere  game  in  pronunciation,  and  a  correct 
handling  of  the  voice  according  to  rules.  Such  games 
are  good  to  make  the  children  keen-sighted,  quick- 
thoughted,  and  correct ;  but  their  place  is  not  in  the 
reading-lesson,  and  if  we  keep  them  there  we  shall  go  on 
forever  teaching  only  words,  words,  words. 

Let  us  first  attend  to  the  thought,  then  to  the  expres- 
sion, and  last  and  least,  to  mechanical  defects.  Better 
that  the  thought  should  be  full-born,  and  clothed  in 
garments  with  here  and  there  a  rent,  than  that  it  should 
be  still-born  and  in  garments  without  a  flaw. 

As  in  language  the  thought  is  the  root  of  which  the 
word  is  the  blossom,  so  in  reading  an  understanding 
of  the  author's  meaning  is  the  root  of  which  oral  reading 
is  the  blossom.  If,  then,  we  find  our  blossoms  defective, 
it  behooves  us  to  look  to  the  condition  of  the  roots. 

But  what  method  will  help  us  here  ?  How  can  we 
make  sure  that  a  child  understands  what  he  reads  ? 
Children  imitate  so  easily,  and  habit  counterfeits  na- 
ture so  closely,  how  can  we  be  sure  that  we  are  not 


THE   THOUGHT   FIKST  41 

misled  ?  Only  by  studying  the  lesson  with  children  ; 
only  by  having  before  every  reading-lesson  a  language- 
lesson  upon  the  subject-matter  of  the  reading  ;  only  by 
compelling  the  children,  by  means  of  questions,  to  think, 
to  reason,  and  to  express  :  to  express  the  thoughts  of  the 
lesson,  first  in  their  own  words,  and  then  in  the  words 
of  the  book ;  and,  whenever  the  subject-matter  may 
be,  from  any  cause  whatsoever,  vague  to  the  children's 
minds,  by  illustrating  it  with  objects,  with  pictures, — 
printed  pictures,  and  outline  pictures  drawn  upon  the 
black-board,  and  with  what  the  English  training-schools 
call  "picturing  out  words ". 


PHONICS 


Till  recently  this  important  subject  had  received  but 
little  attention  in  the  public  schools  of  the  country. 
Why  it  was  so  long  neglected,  when  it  is  such  an  im- 
portant element  of  expression,  is  a  curious  problem. 

The  object  of  teaching  this  subject  should  be  : — 

First. — To  train  the  organs  of  hearing  so  that  the 
children  may  readily  distinguish  the  sounds  heard  in 
speaking  and  reading. 

Second. — To  train  the  organs  of  hearing  so  that  the 
pupils  may  learn  to  produce  the  sounds  correctly  in 
using  language. 

To  acquire  an  articulation  which  shall  be  at  once 
accurate  and  tasteful,  it  is  necessary  : — 

1.  To  obtain  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  elementary 
sounds  of  the  language. 

2.  To  learn  the  appropriate  place  of  these  sounds. 

3.  To  apply  this  knowledge  constantly  in  conversing, 
reading,    and   speaking,  with  a  view  to  correct   every 
deviation  from  propriety. 

A  good  articulation  is  not  to  be  acquired  in  a  day, 
nor  from  a  few  lessons.  Practice  should  begin  with 
the  primer,  and  continue  through  the  whole  course  of 
education  ;  and  even  then  there  will  remain  room  for 

improvement. 

(42) 


DIACBITICAL  SlOtfS  43 


Great  care  should  be  taken  in  giving  these  lessons 
that  the  class  repeat  each  exercise  until  all  the  pupils 
can  make  every  sound  and  combination  that  it  contains, 
readily  and  perfectly. 

The  teacher  should  make  the  sounds,  and  then  require 
the  pupils  to  imitate  them.  The  pupils  should  stand 
or  sit  erect,  and  use  the  natural  tones  of  the  voice. 
Only  one  or  two  sounds  should  be  taken  for  a  lesson. 

The  exercise  should  not  continue  more  than  five 
minutes  ;  it  may  be  introduced  in  the  reading  or  spell- 
ing exercise,  or  the  whole  school  may  join  in  it. 

Tell  the  children  "  to  open  the  mouth  and  move  the 
lips  ",  to  speak  distinctly,  and  to  enunciate  every  sound 
perfectly.  Time  should  not  be  wasted  in  the  endeavor 
to  teach  children  definitions  or  descriptions  of  the  vari- 
ous sounds  of  the  letters.  The  chief  aim  should  be  to 
train  the  organs  of  hearing  to  acuteness,  and  the  organs 
of  speech  to  flexibility  and  accuracy. 

The  pupil  should  be  taught  the  correct  sounds  and 
the  signification  of  the  different  marks.    All       Notation 
the  vowels  and  many  of  the  consonants  have       Sacrfticai 
marks  to  distinguish  their  sounds.  siffns- 

After  a  sound  is  learned  the  teacher  should  write  the 
letter  on  the  board  with  its  proper  mark.  The  pupils 
should  be  required  to  copy  and  reproduce  every  exercise. 
Let  the  drill  be  thorough. 

Tell  the  pupils  that  when  a  short  horizontal  line  — 
called  the  macron  —  is  placed  above  the  vowel  it  indicates 
the  long  sound,  as  a  ;  that  a  short  curved  line  with  the 
curve  downward  —  called  a  ~breve  —  placed  above  the  vowel 
indicates  the  short  sound,  as  a  ;  that  two  dots  placed 
above  the  vowel  a  indicates  the  Italian  sound,  as  a,  etc. 


44  PHOKICS 

"We  find  few  teachers  who  are  able  to  give  the  sounds 
of  the  English  language  correctly,  and  many  are  unable 
to  tell  the  kind  of  a  mark  or  sign  that  indicates  a  certain 
sound. 

This  subject  requires  study  and  practice.  We  need 
not  expect  distinct  speaking  so  long  as  we 

Suggestions.  ,      ,   ,,      _,  ,,       .  , . 

neglect  the  following  suggestions  : — 

1.  Train  the  organs  of  hearing  to  distinguish  readily 
and  accurately  the  different  sounds  of  language. 

2.  Train  the   organs   of    speech    to  produce    these 
sounds  with  ease  and  accuracy. 

3.  Train   the  pupils  to  the  correction   of  faults  of 
enunciation  and  pronunciation  in  reading  and  speaking. 

4.  Train  pupils  in  every  lesson  upon  the  elements. 

5.  Master  the  analysis  before  you  attempt  to  teach  it. 

6.  Let  the  drill  be  accurate. 


For  full  directions  in  teaching  this  important  subject,  the 
author  refers  to  his  book  called  "PRACTICAL  PHONICS  :  A  com- 
prehensive study  of  Pronunciation,  forming  a  complete  guide  to 
the  study  of  the  Elementary  Sounds  of  the  English  Language,  and 
containing  3000  words  of  difficult  pronunciation,  with  diacritical 
marks  according  to  Webster's  Dictionary  ".  Price  75  cts. 


SPELLING 


It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  orthography  of  the  Eng- 
lish language  is  difficult.  In  a  general  way  there  are 
no  principles  governing  it ;  but  few  rules  can  be  called 
to  mind,  and  these  have  so  many  exceptions  that  they 
are  of  little  use. 

There  are  only  three  rules  that  I  have  found  of  prac- 
tical value : — 

1.  Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on    the   last 
syllable,  ending  in  a  single  consonant,  preceded  by  a 
single  vowel,  double  the  final  consonant  before  an  addi- 
tion beginning  with  a  vowel. 

2.  The  diphthong  ie  is  generally  used  after  other 
consonants  than  c,  which  is  followed  by  ei. 

3.  Words  ending  in  final  y,  preceded  by  a  vowel, 
form  their  plurals  by  adding  s. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  English  spelling  must  be 
learned  to  a  great  extent  arbitrarily ;  but  industry  and 
attention  will  enable  any  student  to  master  it. 

Everybody  knows  how  imperfectly  the  teaching  of 
spelling  accomplishes  its  purpose  ;  yet  there  Results  un_ 
is  no  reason  why  any  student  should  habitu-  satisfactory, 
ally  spell  words  badly.  Any  person  may  learn  to  spell, 
if  in  writing,  whenever  he  shall  come  to  a  word  which 
he  does  not  certainly  know  how  to  spell,  he  will  look 
for  it  in  his  dictionary  and  study  its  spelling  and 

meaning. 

(45) 


46  SPELLING 

Too  often  the  spelling  is  a  mere  "parrot  exercise", 
Mechanical  *n  that  ^s  results  are  rapidly  lost  as  soon  as 
spelling.  ^e  attention  is  given  to  something  else. 
Inattention  is  a  fruitful  source  01  ill  spelling.  Time  is 
wasted  upon  oral  spelling,  and  bad  habits  are  formed 
by  spelling  new  words  pupils  do  not  understand. 

I  should  connect  spelling  and  reading  with  writing 
from  the  very  outset.  As  soon  as  the  child 

In  connec-  .,         iii  ,-,  •        i         •• 

tion  with  can  pronounce  the  alphabet  on  this  plan  he 
will  be  able  to  write  it,  and  then  as  he  ad- 
vances he  must  continue  to  write  all  the  spelling  lessons 
and  as  much  of  the  reading  lessons  as  time  will  admit. 
It  is  a  rare  thing  to  find  children  seven  years  old  able 
to  read  a  word  of  manuscript, — much  less  to  write  well. 
A  little  instruction  given  by  the  teacher  each  day  upon 
this  special  study  will  aid  in  making  the  children  good 
penmen.  It  is  a  very  valuable  help. 

During  a  certain  year  I  pronounced  the  following 
words  to  twenty-one  Institutes  in  the  State  of  New 
York,  viz  : — 

accordion,  melodeon,  alpaca, 

beefsteak,  billiards,  caterpillar, 

diphtheria,  harelip,  surcingle, 

occurrence,  inflammatory,  succotash, 

tranquillity,  exaggerate,  vaccinate, 

centennial,  brilliancy,  collision, 

dissipate,  tyrannical,  valleys, 

lilies,  numskull,  primer, 

erysipelas. 

The  average  spelling  of  the  teachers,  including  pub- 
lic school,  union  school,  academy  and  normal  school 
teachers,  was  63  per  cent.  One  county  stood  at  85  per 
cent,  and  one  at  20  per  cent.  Only  three  teachers 


ORAL  SPELLING  47 

from   the  twenty-one   counties  spelled  all  the  words 
correctly. 

The  following  list  has  been  given  at  institutes,  with 
similar  results  : — 

judgment,  infringement,  abridgment, 

acknowledgment,  tranquillity,  dissyllable, 

bilious,  lilies,  eying, 

vying,  halos,  inseparable, 

privilege,  licentiate,  conscientious, 

intercede,  supersede,  sacrilegious, 

inflammation,  quizzical,  contrariwise, 

mucilage,  millennium,  metallic. 

ORAL  SPELLING 

Spelling  is  the  right  formation  of  words  with  their 
proper  letters.  Oral  spelling  does  not  give  value  of  oral 
the  ability  to  write  words  correctly ;  but  it  spellmg- 
must  not  from  this  fact  be  deemed  a  useless  exercise. 
Long  used  as  a  basis  of  learning  to  read,  and  still 
clung  to  by  many,  there  must  be  something  in  it.  It 
makes  words  that  otherwise  would  have  been  altogether 
strange  familiar  to  the  ear  and  sufficiently  distinguish- 
able by  the  eye  to  enable  the  learner  to  recognize  them 
again  when  met  with  in  his  reading  lessons.  It  finds 
favor  with  parents  as  furnishing  some  school  work  at 
home.  And  it  finds  favor  with  the  teachers,  as  giving 
the  only  means  with  the  younger  children,  or  with 
poor  scholars,  of  forming  those  habits  of  attention, 
application,  perseverance,  and  retention  which  are  the 
characteristic  features  of  a  system  of  tasks. 

Directions 

1.  Require  the  pupil  to  pronounce  : — 
(a)  The  word  accurately  before  spelling  ; 


48  SPELLING 

(Z>)  The  letters  accurately  ; 

(c)  The  syllables  accurately  ; 

(d)  The  words  accurately  after  spelliu&  , 

(e)  The  words  of  the  succeeding  lesson  accurately 

before  study. 

2.  Eequire  the  pupil  to  name  everthing  necessary 
to  the  correct  writing  or  printing  of  the  word,  as  the 
capital  letter,  hyphen,  apostrophe,  etc. 

3.  Eequire  the  pupils  to  copy  the  words  of  the  suc- 
ceeding lesson  several  times  before  spelling. 

4.  Let  every  fifth  exercise  be  a  review. 

5.  Eequire  misspelled  words  to  be  written  correctly. 

6.  Eeview  often  and  advance  slowly. 

Cautions 

The  teacher  should  : — 

(a)  Pronounce  the  word  only  once. 

(b)  Never  repeat  a  syllable. 

(c)  Not  permit  the  pupil  to  repeat  a  syllable. 

(d)  Eequire   pupils    to    divide   one   syllable   from 

another  by  a  pause. 

(e)  Give   no   undue   emphasis   to   unaccented   syl- 

lables. 
(/)  Forbid  the  pupil  to  try  the  second  time  on  a 

word. 
(g)  Explain  new  words. 

Results 

1.  The  correct  spelling  of  words. 

2.  The  correct  pronunciation  of  words. 


WKITTEtf    SPELLING  49 

In  teaching  Spelling,  the  instructor  should  aim  to 
give  interest  to  the  exercise  by  frequently 
varying  the  mode  of  recitation.     But  what- 
ever course  is  pursued,  the  following  directions  should 
be  strictly  adhered  to  : — 

a.  The  word  should  be  pronounced  distinctly ;  just 
as  it  would  be  pronounced  by  a  good  reader  or  a  good 
speaker.  In  giving  out  the  words  to  a  class,  teachers 
sometimes  commit  the  error  of  departing  from  the 
ordinary  pronunciation,  for  the  sake  of  indicating  the 
orthography.  No  undue  emphasis  or  prolongation  of  the 
utterance  of  a  syllable  should  be  given  by  the  teacher. 

5.  The  pupil  should  spell  once  only  on  a  word ;  as 
all  beyond  will  be  merely  guessing. 

For  employment  between  recitations  the  children 
should  be  permitted  and  encouraged,  and  required  and 
compelled,  to  write  all  the  exercises  they  read  or  spell 
upon  their  slates. 

The  best  way  to  study  a  spelling  lesson  is  to  require 
the  pupils  to  write  it  several  times  on  their 

-,    ,  mi  ,.  «  .    .  .,       .         Importance 

slates.     The  practice  of  requiring  pupils  to    of  written 
study  the  lesson  a  given  number  of  times 
only  teaches  them  to  hurry  over  their  study,  and  not  to 
study  to  any  purpose. 

It  is  not  the  number  of  times  a  lesson  has  been  studied 
that  should  be  considered  the  mark  of  effort,  but  the 
ability  to  spell  every  word  in  the  lesson. 

There  is  no  reason  why  every  child  in  every  school 
should  not  be  a  good  penman  at  a  very  early 
age.     The  advantage  of  this  acquisition  to    o?teachin* 
the  children  cannot  be  overrated  ;  for,  be- 
sides the  mechanical  skill,  the  child  has  the  means  of 


50  SPELLING 

constant  employment  which  will  keep  him  from  idle- 
ness and  mischief,  and  the  energetic  teacher  can  make 
this  skill  bear  upon  almost  every  exercise  in  other 
branches  of  instruction. 

WRITTEN  SPELLING 
Directions 

1.  Preparation  for  the  lesson. 

(a)  Pronounce  the  word  accurately. 

(V)  Use  it  in  the  construction  of  a  sentence. 

(c)  Define  it. 

(d)  Write  a  sentence  containing  it. 

2.  Materials — Book,  pen  and  ink. 

3.  Eequire  the  pupils  to  write  the  word  neatly,  as 
soon  as  pronounced. 

4.  At  the  close  of  the  written  exercise,  the  teacher, 
or  some  pupil,  should  spell  the  word  orally. 

5.  The  pupil  should  check  the  misspelled  words. 

6.  Every  misspelled  word,  and  word  omitted,  should 
be  written  correctly  on  another  sheet  or  page,  with  its 
number  and  the  number  of  the  column. 

7.  All  blanks,  letters  or  words  erased,  inserted,  writ- 
ten over,  or  written  indistinctly,  should  be  considered 
as  errors. 

8.  The  teacher  should  examine  the  pupil's  work,  and 
keep  a  record  of  the  scholarship. 

9.  Begin  all  words  with  small  letters,  except  proper 
names. 

Cautions 

1.  The  teacher  should  give  sufficient  time  to  the 
exercise. 


DISCOVERY   OF   MISTAKES  51 

2.  The  direction  number  eight  must  be  adhered  to 
strictly  ;  any  violation  will  be  counted  the  same  as  a 
misspelled  word. 

3.  If  words  are   found   unchecked,  they   should   be 
marked  with  a  cipher. 

4.  Every  word  which  the  student  checks  for  himself 
will  deduct  one  ;  every  one  checked  with  a  cipher  will 
deduct  five ;  any  correction    whatever    made   in  the 
column  will  deduct  ten. 

"  The  old  adage, '  Eyes  are  better  than  ears  ',  nowhere 
holds  good  with  greater  force  than  in  learn- 

11  »i      TI        -T      •  Remarks. 

ing  to  spell.  familiarity  with  words  as 
written,  such  as  will  give  the  knowledge  of  all  the  let- 
ters and  their  proper  position,  is  necessary  to  the  power 
of  writing  them,  correctly.  Such  familiarity  is  obtained 
only  from  frequently  seeing  and  writing  them.  The 
only  way  to  produce  words  accurately  is  to  make  them 
familiar  to  the  eye ;  hence  the  well-known  fact  that 
persons  who  read  much,  as  compositors,  or  write  much, 
as  copyists,  invariably  spell  correctly ;  hence  also  the 
common  practice,  when  people  are  in  doubt  between 
two  forms  of  words,  to  write  them  both,  when  the  eye 
instantly  decides  on  the  right  way. 

The  detection  of  every  mistake  with  least  loss  of  time 
is  of  the  first  importance.  Careful  examin-  Discovery 
ation  of  each  slate  by  the  teacher  is  most  of  mistakes. 
likely  to  secure  this,  but  it  is  open  to  the  fatal  objection 
that  it  occupies  much  time  and  leaves  the  class  idle. 
In  some  schools  monitors  are  appointed  to  examine  the 
slates  and  to  correct  the  mistakes.  This,  apart  from 
the  difficulty  of  getting  properly  qualified  monitors,  is 
objectionable,  as  yielding  the  monitors  no  adequate  re- 


52  SPELLING 

turn  for  their  long  and  irksome  task,  to  which  must  be 
added  the  possibility  of  unfaithfulness.  The  plan  of 
allowing  the  children  to  inspect  each  other's  slates  is 
open  to  serious  objections,  not  the  least  of  which  is  the 
distrust  it  seems  to  imply.  Sometimes  the  children 
compare  their  slates  with  the  lesson  in  the  book,  or 
written  on  the  black-board  ;  a  plan  which  has  the  advan- 
tages of  throwing  the  labor  on  the  child,  and  of  having 
the  corrections  made  at  the  same  time  :  all  that  is  needed 
being  a  vigilant  oversight,  to  see  that  it  is  faithfully  done. 
But  the  method  which  to  our  mind  is  the  best,  is  to 
dictate  but  one  or  two  sentences,  and  then  to  have  each 
sentence  spelled  through,  either  by  the  teacher  or  by 
the  scholars  in  turn,  every  mistake  being  underlined. 
The  correction  of  mistakes  should  appeal  to  the  eye, 
not  to  the  ear.  Pains  should  be  taken  to 

Corrections. 

ascertain  the  cause  of  any  common  defect. 
For  this  purpose  the  word  should  be  written  on  the 
black-board,  and  alongside  of  it  the  correct  form ;  the 
two  should  be  compared  and  the  cause  of  the  mistake 
discovered.  Often  this  will  be  a  lesson  on  the  structure 
of  a  class  of  words,  and  probably  prevent  similar  mis- 
takes afterwards.  After  this  has  been  done,  the  whole 
class  should  write  the  word  in  its  correct  form,  and  then 
the  words  should  be  dictated  afresh ;  if  any  now  have 
mistakes,  they  should  be  required  to  write  the  words 
three  or  six  times,  according  to  the  degree  of  careless- 
ness shown.  Sometimes  it  may  be  well  to  direct  the 
children  themselves  to  write  correctly  the  words  they 
have  underlined,  this  making  them  attentive  while  the 
words  are  being  spelled.  But,  as  a  general  thing,  this 
is  open  to  the  objection  that  it  appeals  to  the  eye,  and 


METHODS  53 

that  it  does  not  occupy  the  children  who  have  spelled 
it  correctly. 

METHODS  IN  SPELLING 
/.     Constructive  Method 
The  teacher  should  request  the  pupils  : — 

(a)  To  name  a  few  familiar  words. 

(b)  To  construct  with  block  or  card  letters. 

(c)  To  spell  the  words  by  the  sound  of  the  letters. 

(d)  To  copy  the  words  on  their  slates. 

(e)  To  tell  the  silent  letters. 

(/)  To  spell  the  words  by  the  names  of  the  letters. 
(g)  To  use  each  word  correctly  in  a  sentence. 

II.     Objective  Method 

The  teacher  should  request  the  pupils  : — 

(a)  To  bring  to  school  a  number  of   objects  of 

the  same  kind. 

(b)  To  examine  them  carefully. 

(c)  To  name  the  parts. 

(d)  To  spell  and  write  words. 

(e)  To  tell  the  uses  of  the  parts. 

(/)  To  introduce  the  word  into  a  sentence. 
(g)  To  name  the  properties  of  the  parts. 
(h)  To  write   a   short  composition,  reproducing 
words. 

III.     Definitive  Method 

1.  Assign  an  object  to  every  pupil. 

2.  Pupils  find  the  meaning. 

3.  Pupils  name  the  parts,  qualities,  uses,  etc. 

4.  Pupils  write  a  short  composition,  reproducing  the 
words. 


54  SPELLIKG 

IV.     Composition  Method 

1.  The  teacher  writes  a  certain  number  of  words  on 
the  board,  requiring  the  pupils  to  copy. 

2.  The  pupils  learn  to  define  them. 

3.  The  pupils  use  them  in  composition  of  a  sentence. 

V.     Geographical  Method 
Require  the  pupils  to  spell  the  names  of  : — 
(a)  Countries. 
(J)  States. 

(c)  Counties. 

(d)  Cities. 

(e)  Towns. 

(/)  Divisions  of  Land. 
(g)  Divisions  of  Water. 
(h)  Occupations. 

VI.     Natural  History  Method 
Require  the  pupils  to  spell  the  names  of 
(a)  Animals,  Minerals,  etc. 
(V)  Trees. 

(c)  Fruits. 

(d)  Flowers. 

(e)  Vegetables. 

VII.     Dictation  Method 

1.  The  teacher  has  Dictation  Exercises  once  a  week. 

2.  He    dictates    stories,   descriptions,    etc.,    to    the 

pupils,  who  produce  them  exactly. 

Suggestions  for  the  Above  Exercise 

1.  Write  your  full  name  on  the  paper. 

2.  Number  the  sentences. 

3.  Construct  every  letter  accurately. 


METHODS  55 

4.  Do  not  erase  letters  or  words. 

5.  Do  not  insert  letters  or  words. 

6.  Do  not  write  over  letters  or  words. 

7.  Do  not  prompt,  or  be  prompted. 

8.  Use  capital  letters  correctly. 

9.  Use  punctuation  marks  correctly. 

10.  Cross  the  "tV  and  dot  the  "i's". 

11.  The  teacher  or  pupil  writes  the  correct  forms  on 
the  board. 

12.  Those  who  make  mistakes  in  spelling,  or  in  any 
of  the  directions,  are  required  to  correct  them. 

13.  The  teacher  examines  the  papers ;  and 

14.  Finds  the  per  cent. 

However  thorough  the  drill  in  spelling  may  be  from 
the  lessons  of  the  speller  or  reader,  every  RemarkS 
teacher  should  have  frequent  and  copious 
exercises  in  spelling  words  from  other  sources.  These 
should  be  words  in  common  use,  chosen  as  far  as  possi- 
ble from  the  range  of  the  pupiFs  observation,  including 
the  new  words  that  arise  in  object  lessons,  in  geography, 
arithmetic,  and  grammar.  The  more  difficult  of  these 
words  should  be  written  in  columns  on  the  board,  and 
studied  and  reviewed  with  the  same  care  as  lessons  from 
the  speller  and  reader.  Failures  in  spelling  these  words 
should  be  marked  as  errors,  the  same  as  failures  in  any 
other  lessons. 

SUGGESTIVE  METHODS  IN  SPELLING 

1.  Bead  a  short  sentence  distinctly,  and  require  every 
word  to  be  spelled  by  the  class, — the  first  pupil  pro- 
nouncing and  spelling  the  first  word,  the  next  pupil  the 
second,  and  so  on  until  all  the  words  in  the  sentence 


56  SPELLING 

have  been  spelled.     (An  excellent  exercise  :  it  demands 
attention.) 

2.  It  will  be  well  in  oral  spelling  to  make  all   the 
members  of  the  class  responsible  for  the  accurate  spell- 
ing of  each  and  every  word. 

If  the  first  member  of  the  class  misspells  the  word 
given  to  him,  let  the  teacher  proceed  and  give  out  the 
next  word,  without  intimating  whether  the  first  word 
was  correctly  or  incorrectly  spelled. 

If  the  second  pupil  thinks  the  first  word  was  not 
spelled  correctly,  he  will  spell  it  instead  of  the  one  given 
him,  and  so  on  through  the  class,  each  being  expected 
to  correct  any  error  that  may  have  been  committed.  If 
the  first  pupil  spells  a  word  incorrectly,  and  no  one  cor- 
rects it,  let  all  be  charged  with  a  failure.  This  mode 
will  amply  compensate  for  its  frequent  adoption. 

Two-thirds  of  the  words  in  the  English  language 
need  but  little  study.     The  remainder  can 

Put  your  J 

hard  work      be  mastered  only  by    study.     The    pupils 
cult  words,     should  be  urged  to  study  the  difficult  words. 

3.  Another  mode  of  conducting  the  exercise  of  spell- 
ing is  the  following,  and  we  may  add  that  for  more 
advanced  schools  it  possesses  some  advantages. 

Let  the  teacher  write  legibly  on  the  board  twenty  or 
more  difficult  words,  and  allow  them  to  remain  long 
enough  to  be  carefully  studied  by  the  school.  A  few 
minutes  before  the  exercise  let  all  the  words  be  erased 
from  the  board.  Let  each  pupil  provide  himself  with 
a  slip  of  paper,  following  the  order  as  directed  in  the 
previous  exercises.  The  teacher  will  pronounce  the 
words  and  the  pupils  will  write  them* 


SUGGESTIVE   METHODS  57 

After  the  words  have  been  written,  let  the  slips  be 
collected  and  taken  by  the  teacher,  who  may  himself — 
aided  by  some  of  the  pupils — examine  the  slips,  and 
mark  the  words  spelled  incorrectly.  Subsequently,  let 
the  teacher  read  the  result  to  the  whole  school,  stating 
the  number  of  errors  committed  by  the  several  pupils  ; 
after  which  the  papers  may  be  returned  for  correction. 
If  there  is  a  good  board  in  the  room,  a  few  pupils  should 
write  the  lesson  on  it. 

4.  An  attractive  mode,  which  may  answer  for  oral  or 
written  spelling,  is  the  following  : 

The  instructor  pronounces  the  word  which  is  to  be 
spelled  by  the  first  in  the  class,  who  will  name  immedi- 
ately another,  commencing  with  the  final  letter  of  the 
first  word  which  is  to  be  spelled  by  the  next  pupil ;  and 
he  in  turn  will  name  another  word,  and  so  on  through 
the  class.  It  will  awaken  thought  and  interest. 

5.  Another  mode  which  has  its  advantages   is  the 
following':     «, 

Let  the  teacher  dictate  some  twenty  or  twenty-five 
words  to  the  class,  requiring  the  members  to  write  them 
on  their  slates.  These  words  are  to  be  carefully  exam- 
ined and  studied  by  the  pupils,  who  are  also  to  be 
required  to  incorporate  each  word  in  a  sentence  which 
shall  illustrate  its  meaning  and  show  that  it  is  under- 
stood by  them. 

After  these  sentences  have  been  read  and  erased  from 
the  slates,  let  the  words  be  dictated  again,  to  be  written 
and  examined  with  special  reference  to  the  orthography. 

The  teacher  should  keep  a  copy  of  all  words  dictated 
to  the  pupils,  and  hold  them  responsible  for  the  correct 
spelling  in  review. 


58 

Teachers  should  give  close  attention  to  this  important 
importance  subject,  for  truly  it  has  been  said,  "  To  spell 
>f  spelling.  one>s  own  language  well  is  no  great  credit 
to  him,  for  he  ought  to  do  it ;  but  to  spell  it  ill  is  a  dis- 
grace, because  it  indicates  extremely  poor  attention  and 
loose  scholarship." 

We  have  a  great  number  of  spelling-books,  grammars, 
and  other  aids,  but  with  all  these,  poor  spellers  still 
abound. 

One  cause  of  the  frequency  of  poor  spelling  may  be 
found  in  the  neglect  with  which  the  spelling  lesson  is 
treated  in  schools.  It  is  often  crowded  into  a  few  min- 
utes and  passed  over  in  a  hurried  and  imperfect 
manner,  while  if  any  exercise  must  be  omitted  the  spell- 
ing lesson  is  the  neglected  one.  Another  cause  may  be 
found  in  a  feeling,  not  very  uncommon,  that  spelling 
is  undeserving  the  attention  of  any  but  very  young 
pupils. 

Prom  the  beginning  let  your  pupils  understand  that 
the  spelling  lesson  will  always  receive  its  due  share  of 
attention,  and  its  due  time.  Hold  your  pupils  respon- 
sible for  the  correct  spelling  of  every  word  in  the  regu- 
lar recitation  and  upon  reviews. 

As  soon  as  the  pupils  can  write,  which  in  a  well-con- 
ducted school  is  about  as  soon  as  they  can  read,  special 
instruction  in  spelling  with  script  letters  should  be  in- 
troduced, and  children  should  be  required  to  write  and 
to  spell  orally  every  word  in  their  reading,  and  the  diffi- 
cult words  in  other  lessons.  If  accuracy  and  neatness 
in  every  particular  be  required,  habits  of  careful  atten- 
tion will  be  formed. 


EXERCISES   IK   PROKtWCIATIOK  59 

The  child  must  be  taught  to  spell  correctly  before 
twelve  years  old,  as  this  habit  is  seldom  acquired  after 
that  age. 

A  good  speller  is  one  who  habitually  gives  the  cor- 
rect form  to  every  word  in  his  written  exer-  spelling  used 
cises.  It  is  only  in  printed  and  written  Ian- 
guage  that  correct  spelling  possesses  any  ms' 
value.  Oral  spelling  is  not  a  test  of  accuracy.  It  is 
impossible  to  memorize  by  their  letters  all  the  words  in 
our  language.  If  we  wish  to  make  pupils  excellent 
spellers,  we  must  cultivate  the  powers  of  observation  and 
memory.  If  habits  of  carelessness  and  inaccuracy  are 
allowed  to  be  formed  in  childhood,  no  ordinary  efforts 
in  after  life  can  overcome  the  defects  or  supply  the 
deficiencies  that  result  from  such  habits. 

GENERAL  EULES  FOR  SPELLING 

Rule  1.  Write  no  word  unless  sure  of  its  orthography 
and  signification. 

Rule  2.  Consult  the  dictionary  in  case  of  doubt. 

Rule  3.  Apply  the  rules  for  derivatives. 

Eules  for  spelling  are  of  but  little  use  in  primary 
classes,  or  in  fact  in  any  classes.     It  may  be 
well  to  memorize  them,  as  they  may  prove 
of  a  little  use  in  spelling  of  derivatives. 

EXERCISES  IBT  ORTHOEPY 

NOTE. — The  teacher  should  write  these  words  on  the 
board,  and  let  the  pupils  pronounce  them. 

1.  sacrifice,  4.  equable, 

2.  memoriter,  5.  truths, 

3.  pedagogy,  6.  torrid, 


60 


SPELLING 


7.  often, 

9.  finance, 

8.  pretty, 

10.  mercy. 

1.  sSc'rrfice, 

6.  tSrMd, 

2.  memSr'iter, 

7.  Sf'n, 

3.  pgcTagOgy, 

8.  prtt'ty, 

4.  5'quable, 

9.  fT'nSnce, 

5.  truths, 

10.  mSi^cy. 

1.  finale, 

6.  inquiry, 

2.  apparatus, 

7.  employe, 

3.  orotund, 

8.  condolence, 

4.  jugular, 

9.  dessert, 

5.  enervate, 

10.  pronunciation. 

1.  finale, 

6.  Inquiry, 

2.  SpparS'tus, 

7.  employe, 

3.  C'rOtund, 

8.  condolence, 

4.  ju'gular, 

9.  dessert7, 

5.  engr'vate, 

10.  pronunciation. 

1.  aye, 

6.  acclimate, 

2.  area, 

7.  apparent, 

3.  almond, 

8.  aspirant, 

4.  alias, 

9.  allopathy, 

5.  arctic, 

10.  albumen. 

1.  a'ye, 

6.  ScclI'mate, 

2.  a'rea, 

7.  SppaVent, 

3.  a'mond, 

8.  Ssplr'ant, 

4.  a'ttas, 

9.  aildp'athy. 

5.  arc'tic, 

10.  Slbu'men. 

1.  Appala'chian, 

6.  Colorado, 

2.  Amazon, 

7.  Cohoes7, 

3.  New  Orleans, 

8.  Virginia, 

4.  New'foiindland, 

9.  Arkansas, 

5.  Shawan'gunk,  (Sho^gum) 

10.  Ausa'ble. 

ARTICULATION  61 

"  Exactness  in  articulation  cannot  exist  without  close 
discrimination  and  careful  analysis."    The     Remarks 
preceding  exercises  on  the  correct  pronun- 
ciation of  words  should  receive  attention.     It  would  be 
well  for  the  teacher  to  write  on  the  board  a  list  of  words 
pronounced  incorrectly  by  the  pupils,  and  require  the 
pupils  to  correct  them. 

The  author's  "Pocket  Pronunciation  Book"  (price  15  cts.), 
gives  3,000  of  the  words  oftenest  mispronounced.  Hall's  "  Or- 
thoepy Made  Easy"  (price  75  cts.)  gives  38  selections  containing 
in  narrative  form  the  words  oftenest  mispronounced,  with  a  key  at 
the  end  of  each  giving  all  the  words  with  diacritical  marks. 
Hoose's  "  Studies  in  Articulation"  (price  50  cts.)  gives  a  careful 
study  of  sounds,  with  abundant  exercises  in  pronunciation. 

Sanford's  "  Limited  Speller "  (price  25  cts.)  gives  the  5;000 
words  most  commonly  misspelled,  arranging  them  alphabetically, 
and  giving  the  diacritical  marks,  so  that  no  mistake  can  be  made 
in  pronunciation.  It  is  perhaps  the  best  adapted  to  secure  results 
of  all  the  manuals  published. 


PENMANSHIP 


I.     GEJSTEEAL  PKIJSTCIPLES 

Instruction  in  penmanship  may  be  broadly  classed 
under  two  heads  ;  one  which  aims  to  teach  scholars  to 
draw,  and  the  other  which  seeks  to  develop  the  forms 
of  letters  through  the  medium  of  natural  movements. 

The  first  makes  use  mainly  of  the  movements  which 
may  be  produced  by  the  fingers,  thumb,  and  wrists,  while 
the  second  recognizes  a  medium  of  execution  which 
brings  into  play  the  entire  arm  and  shoulder  muscles. 

These  two  processes  are  based  upon  principles  so  radi- 
cally different,  that  a  clear  understanding  of  the  nature 
and  tendency  of  each  is  quite  essential  to  any  intelligent 
plan  of  teaching. 

It  would  be  comparatively  easy  to  suggest  theoretically 
a  method  for  instructing  classes  in  our  public  schools 
which  if  carried  out  according  to  programme  would 
insure  excellent  results,  but  in  practice  we  might  find 
it  an  entirely  different  thing  ;  the  conditions  are  usually 
so  restrictive,  and  the  requirements  regarding  other 
branches  to  be  taught  so  numerous,  that  the  question 
really  becomes,  not  so  much  what  ought  a  teacher  to 
do,  as  what  can  he  do,  under  the  circumstances  ? 
PENMANSHIP  NOT  ACQUIRED  BY  IMITATION  OF  FORMS 

One  of  the  first  requirements,  especially  in  our  graded 
schools,  is  that  a  child  from  the  moment  he 

A  fundamen- 
tal error.         enters  shall  begin  to  learn  to  make  the  script 

letters,  and  to  form  them  into  words  and  sentences,  as 

(62) 


IMITATION   OF   FORMS  63 

an  essential  medium  for  developing  the  faculty  of  lan- 
guage. In  doing  this  if  he  is  able  to  draw  out  the  forms 
legibly  upon  the  slate  or  tablet,  the  important  question 
of  how  it  is  done  is  rarely  considered,  and  even  the 
more  important  question  as  to  what  future  use  the  child 
may  make  of  this  writing,  receives  but  little  attention. 

It  is  a  fact  well  known  to  teachers  that  in  learning  to 
form  the  letter,  young  children  almost  in-  . 

9  J          &  .  Early  forma- 

variably  acquire  a  habit  of  grasping  the  pencil    Jj0^.Pf  bad 
in  a  manner  which  cramps  the  fingers,  forces 
the  hand  over  to  the  right,  bends  the  wrist  in  toward 
the  body,  and  places  the  pen  in  a  position  which  is  so 
awkward  and  unnatural  as  to  prevent  absolutely  any- 
thing like  freedom  in  execution ;  but  it  is  forgotten 
that  this  habit  of  twisting  and  distorting  the  position 
of  the  hand  must  in  time  become  as  much  a  part  of  the 
act  of  writing  as  the  form  of  the  letter  itself. 

The  force  of  habit  will  be  certain  to  assert  its  power, 
and  this  strained  unnatural  position  must  eventually 
identify  itself  with  the  forming  process  in  every  letter — 
the  act  of  writing  becomes  a  torture  instead  of  a  pleasure, 
and  a  struggle  ensues  between  teacher  and  pupil  when 
the  slate  is  exchanged  for  the  copy  book,  and  the  attempt 
is  made  to  correct  the  habit. 

Nor  does  the  difficulty  end  when  by  careful  teaching 
and  patient  effort  the  scholar  has  obtained  some  con- 
trol of  the  pen,  and  is  able  to  imitate  the  forms  of  letters. 
The  carefully  drawn  page  in  the  copy  book  will  often 
excite  admiration,  while  the  composition  or  other  written 
exercise  presents  a  style  of  penmanship  which  fails  to 
suggest  any  connection  between  them,  the  character  of 


64  PENMANSHIP 

the  handwriting  in  the  two  instances  being  as  totally 
unlike  as  if  written  by  different  persons. 

This  tendency  to  write  two  entirely  different  hands 
is  not  at  all  uncommon  among  school  children,  and 
demonstrates  quite  clearly  that  penmanship  acquired  by 
imitation,,  and  with  the  hand  and  pen  in  a  false  position, 
lacks  the  essential  quality  of  practical  application. 

Under  these  conditions  the  teacher  is  quite  apt  to 
become  discouraged,  and  may  conclude  that  such  results 
are  inevitable  ;  but  when  properly  understood,  the  real 
cause  of  failure  may  be  traced  to  the  natural  difference 
which  exists  between  drawing  two  words  per  minute  in 
the  writing  lesson,  and  the  attempts  to  draw  fifteen  or 
twenty  in  the  same  time  in  the  composition,  where  it 
becomes  evident  that  the  process  of  correct  drawing 
must  be  restricted  as  to  speed. 

It  is  perhaps  practically  impossible  to  do  away  with 
Disadvan-  slate-work  in  teaching  writing  to  primary 
sfate?  °ork  scholars,  notwithstanding  its  liabilty  to  pro- 
mote bad  habits  in  pen-holding,  its  certain 
tendency  to  make  a  scholar  careless  in  all  his  work  ;  but 
it  is  evident  that  the  transition  from  the  unyielding 
slate  surface  and  the  short  pencil  where  main  strength 
often  becomes  an  active  element,  to  the  sharp,  pliant 
pen  and  soft  texture  of  the  paper,  is  altogether  too 
abrupt.  Some  kind  of  preparation  is  needful,  and  if 
an  intermediate  drill  in  which  long  lead  pencils  might 
be  used  on  calendered  manilla  paper,  was  introduced,  it 
would  render  the  change  more  gradual  and  be  produc- 
tive of  better  results. 

So  long  as  instruction  in  penmanship  consists  of 
teaching  by  imitation  the  forms  of  letters,  with  such 


THE   SECRET   OF  SUCCESS  65 

occasional  directions  for  position  and  pen-holding  as  a 
teacher  who  cannot  himself  hold  a  pen  correctly  may  ven- 
ture to  give,  the  theory  of  an  intimate  relation  between 
writing  and  drawing  will  be  accepted ;  the  faculty  of 
drawing  will  possibly  be  somewhat  developed,  but  as 
regards  any  practical  application  commercially  or  other- 
wise, the  process  results  in  failure,  the  scholar  continues 
to  draw  term  after  term,  but  unfortunately  never  learns 
to  write. 

This  may  partly  explain  why  the  slate  work  of  the 
primary  grades  in  many  of  our  schools  is  so  much  better 
than  the  pen  work  of  scholars  in  the  higher  classes  ;  the 
formation  in  writing  is  so  simple  that  the  elements  are 
rapidly  acquired,  but  in  the  attempt  to  use  pen  and  ink, 
without  having  been  thoroughly  drilled  in  movement, 
the  correct  form  quickly  disappears. 

THE  SECEET  OF  SUCCESS  LIES  IN  THE  ARM  MOVEMENT. 

Want  of  confidence,  generally  arising  from  a  belief 
that  one  must  needs  be  a  fine  penman  to  teach  this 
branch  successfully,  prevents  many  able  teachers  from 
attempting  anything  out  of  the  ordinary  routine. 

A  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  value  of  movement, 
the  ability  to  make  upon  the  blackboard  a  Every  teacher 
few  simple  elements  of  form,  a  little  faith 
gained  from  personal  experience,  and  a  dis-  wel1- 
position  to  work,  will  enable  any  teacher  to  obtain  as 
good  results  in  this  as  in  any  other  branch,  and  quite 
frequently  much  better. 

If  penmanship  as  now  taught  in  our  public  schools 
is  a  comparative  failure,  the  fault  is  largely  with  the 
teacher;  he  does  npt  need  to  be  an  expert  penman  to 


66  PENMANSHIP 

teach  it  acceptably.  It  is  better  to  know  something  of 
the  analysis  of  letters,  but  the  requirements  in  this  re- 
spect are  not  beyond  what  the  majority  possess. 

He  should,  of  course,  understand  from  the  start  that 
he  is  to  teach  writing,  not  drawing ;  and  the  scholar 
should  be  made  to  realize  that  he  is  to  learn  to  form  the 
letters  with  the  whole  arm  instead  of  with  the  fingers. 

Whole-arm,  as  here  used,  should  not  be  confounded 
with  off-hand  or  free-arm  movement ;  for  although  the 
entire  arm  is  used,  the  fore-arm  rest  on  the  desk  is 
maintained,  and  the  sleeve  is  kept  from  sliding. 

Next,  and  in  this  connection  most  important  of  all, 
Not  imitation  ^eacner  an(^  scholar  should  each  know  that 
76  ^e  ^es^  way  ^°  imProve  his  penmanship  is 
to  stop  writing  entirely,  so  far  as  imitation 
of  letters  is  concerned,  and  to  give  all  attention  to  the 
cultivation  or  development  of  movement  through  prac- 
tice on  properly  arranged  exercises. 

It  is  evident  that  if  a  scholar  has  already  acquired  a 
false  position  of  the  hand  in  learning  to  form  letters  on 
the  slate  or  otherwise,  this  form  and  position  are  to  a 
degree  inseparable,  and  continued  practice  on  the  let- 
ters with  pen  and  ink  will  serve  merely  to  confirm  bad 
habits,  and  to  prevent  the  establishment  of  correct 
ones. 

New  forms  of  exercises  must  necessarily  be  associated 
Exercise  w^  ^°  new  movements  ;  and  that  the  mo- 
on^vai?6  ^ve  *or  Prac^ce  may  not  ke  uncertain,  the 
hand  and  arm  under  the  impulse  of  an  aug- 
mented power  must  be  drilled  to  do  something  definite, 
having  always  for  its  object  the  application  of  the  move- 
ments acquired  to  the  construction  of  letters  :  hence  all 


REPETITION   OF   ONE   MOVEMENT  67 

exercises  of  muscular  drill  should  be  based  upon  the 
standard  forms  of  ovals,  separately,  and  associated  with 
straight  lines. 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS 

There  is  so  much  variety  in  the  shape  and  size  of 
school  desks  that  definite  instruction  for  the 
position  of  the  body,  and  the  placing  of  the    position  the 
right  arm  so  as  to  secure  the  best  results  in 
all  cases,  cannot  be  given  ;  but  it  will  generally  be  found 
that  if  a  scholar  is  given  a  start  in  arm  movement,  and 
is  made  to  understand  clearly  what  is  expected  of  him, 
he  will  usually  adjust  himself  to  existing  conditions 
and  work  out  both  problems  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 

It  is  the  constant,  persistent  repetition  of  a  single 
movement  which  tells  in  forming  an  exercise,  Re  etitionof 
and  this  part  of  a  beginner's  work  cannot  a  single 

movement. 

well  be  overdone. 

Drill  a  scholar  in  this  manner  for  a  few  months  and 
you  will  have  given  him  a  degree  of  facility  with  the 
pen  which  he  can  no  more  forget  than  the  knack  of 
skating  or  swimming,  and  in  addition  you  will  enable 
him  to  lay  the  only  true  foundation  for  future  success- 
ful practice  in  penmanship. 

In  telegraphy  the  character,  or  the  sound  represent- 
ing it,  is  not  produced  by  the  operator  through  any 
mental  recognition  of  the  number  or  arrangement  of 
the  dots  and  dashes  employed,  but  by  an  unconscious 
action  of  the  fingers,  which  through  long  practice  has 
come  to  personate  that  special  character.  And  the 
business  penman,  although  forming  characters  with  per- 
fect uniformity,  gives  no  thought  to  the  matter  of  right, 


68  PENMANSHIP 

left,  or  double  curves ;  a  definite  movement  has  been 
established  for  each  letter,  and  the  hand  trained  by 
practice  does  the  work  without  mental  effort. 

That  which  in  practice  is  true  of  telegraphy  or  rapid 
business  writing  is  equally  true  in  applying  acquired 
movements  in  learning  to  write.  The  letters  are  so 
constructed  that  by  learning  the  strokes  which  form  the 
principal  types — five  in  number — the  letters  themselves 
may  be  formed  without  especial  effort ;  and  if  the  stroke 
fails  to  produce  a  correct  type,  the  error  will  be  found 
to  result  from  an  imperfect  movement  rather  than  from 
any  lack  of  knowledge  in  formation,  and  want  of  char- 
acter in  any  letter  may  be  directly  traced  to  lack  of 
firmness  and  precision  in  the  arm  action. 

Very  much  of  this  fine  theorizing  about  the  necessity 
individuals  ^or  developing  the  artistic  and  cultivating 
in  penman-  the  beautiful  in  conception  of  form,  as  ap- 
plied to  teaching  school  children  to  write,  is 
mere  nonsense,  and  may  easily  become  a  hindrance 
rather  than  a  help  to  practical  work. 

It  is  a  well  understood  fact  that  no  two  persons  ever 
did  or  ever  will  write  exactly  alike ;  in  learning,  each 
one  will  be  certain  to  develop  characteristics  peculiar  to 
himself,  and  there  is  little  use  or  reason  in  attempting 
to  force  all  hands  into  any  specific  mould. 

Make  a  careful  study  of  the  right  arm  ;  ascertain  by 
study  the  practice  which  muscles  and  joints  come  most 
arm.  prominently  into  use  by  the  act  of  writing, 

and  then  introduce  such  calisthenic  exercises  as  will  dis- 
cipline these  into  subjection  to  the  will ;  now,  basing 
your  pen  drills  upon  properly  arranged  exercises,  put 
scholars  in  the  way  of  securing  this  faculty  or  knack  of 


IN  PUBLIC   SCHOOLS  69 

movement  as  applied  to  the  different  classes  of  letters, 
and  the  mere  matter  of  form,  although  of  equal  impor- 
tance, will  require  but  little  special  attention. 

THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  MAY  MAKE  GOOD  PENMEN. 

Many  teachers  get  the  idea  that  as  good  work  cannot 
be  done  in  public  schools  as  in  those  organized  for 
special  instruction  in  commercial  branches,  but  experi- 
ence shows  that  the  better  work  in  almost  every  respect 
can  and  should  be  done  in  the  former. 

The  organization  and  force  of  discipline  behind  a 
teacher  in  a  well  regulated  public  school  is  aForceofor 
powerful  lever,  which  rightly  applied   may  gamzation 
be  made  a  means  for  producing  results  not 
easily  attainable  in  any  other  way.     In  addition  to  this, 
the  fact  that  children  may  be  kept  under  a  systematic 
course  of  training  for  several  years,  and  the  habits  of 
correct  position,  movement  and   formation   so  firmly 
established  as  to  assure  continued  improvement  after 
leaving  school,  renders  the  public  school  instruction  in 
many  respects  more  valuable  than  tuition  under  other 
conditions. 

II.     PRACTICAL  EXEECISES 
SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 

The  lessons  given  on  the  following  pages  are  intended 
to  assist  you  in  acquiring  the  ARM  MOVEMENT  Learn  to  do 
in  writing,  as  distinguished  from  the  use  of  bydoin£- 
the  thumb  and  finger  joints.  If  you  will  merely  take 
the  time  to  demonstrate  its  value  in  your  own  case  you 
cannot  very  well  fail  in  teaching  it  successfully  to  others. 
But  this  is  a  case  where  for  a  certainty  you  must  learn 


70  PENMANSHIP 

to  do  by  doing,  and  the  measure  of  your  own  success 
will  determine  the  degree  of  confidence  with  which  you 
will  impart  it  unto  others.  You  need  not  necessarily 
wait  for  its  accomplishment  before  beginning  to  teach 
it.  As  soon  as  you  have  learned  to  place  the  arm  and 
hand  properly,  as  directed  on  page  71,  and  can  make 
the  direct  muscular  movement  as  illustrated  hereafter 
(but  without  the  pen),  put  your  class  under  the  same 
drill,  and  by  thus  applying  the  theory  in  practice  you 
will  add  materially  to  the  value  of  your  own  training. 

When  the  work  outlined  in  this  lesson  has  been  ac- 
Position  of  complished,  when  you  can  not  only  make  the 
the  pupiL  movement  exercises  fairly  well  (this  does  not 
refer  to  a  perfect  formation,  as  that  is  merely  a  result 
and  not  a  means)  but  can  also  teach  others  to  make  them, 
then  you  will  be  prepared  to  continue  the  application  of 
the  method  by  the  use  of  properly  arranged  exercise 
books.  For  position  you  will  probably  obtain  the  best 
results  by  having  the  pupil  turn  the  right  side  to  the 
desk,  placing  the  right  fore-arm  entirely  on  it  (the 
elbow  joint  will  not  interfere  if  the  arm  is  perfectly  flat), 
and  with  left  hand  brought  to  the  edge  to  hold  the  paper 
or  book.  The  body  should  not  touch  the  edge  of  the 
desk.  Do  not  allow  the  pupil  to  lean  on  the  right  arm  ; 
be  careful  that  a  light  rest  is  maintained  in  all  move- 
ments. 

In  practising  to  improve  your  penmanship,  ligibility 
and  uniformity  are  the  primary,  and  free- 

Thefour  ...  r ...  ,.  , 

ends  to  be       dom  m  movement  and  rapid  execution,  the 
ultimate  results  to  be  attained.    These,  taken 
together,  constitute  the  essentials  of  good  writing. 
The  motive  for  practice  should  not  be  uncertain ;  the 


PRACTICAL  EXERCISES  VI 

hand  and  arm  must  be  drilled  to  do  something  definite, 
and  that  having  always  for  its  object  the  application  of 
the  movements  acquired  to  the  construction  of  letters. 
We  may  say  here,  that  all  consideration  of  this  subject 
will  be  from  the  standpoint  of  future  utility,  by  assum- 
ing that  those  who  undertake  to  carry  out  the  instruc- 
tion will  have  in  view  a  practical  application  in  some 
form  of  what  they  may  acquire  either  as  teachers  or 
penmen. 

POSITION 

The  position  of  the  hand  and  pen,  in  learning  to  write, 
is  of  such  vital  importance  that  any  neglect    Correct  osi. 
to  secure  and  maintain  the  standard  position    ^Jj^jf ~ 
will  be  almost  certain  to  result  in  failure ; 
any  attempt  to  evade  this  point  by  trying  to  do  it  your 
way,  because  it  appears  less  difficult,  will  simply  defeat 
its  accomplishment.     If  you  value  success  in  this  work, 
be  sure  that  you  begin  right  in  penholding,  and  then  be 
very  careful  that  you  keep  right. 

The  directions  for  securing  this  have  reference  to 
placing  the  body  in  such  a  position  at  the  table  (not 
always  applicable  to  school  desks),  as  will  admit  of  an 
unrestricted  use  of  the  right  arm,  hand,  and  fingers.  In 
teaching  position  to  school  children,  let  them  turn  the 
right  side,  placing  the  right  arm  on  the  desk  parallel  to 
its  front  edge  ;  left  hand  brought  to  the  edge  of  desk  to 
hold  book  or  practice  paper,  both  feet  on  floor,  etc.; 
straighten  the  arm  until  the  elbow  comes  near  the  front 
of  the  body.  When  practising  at  a  table  take  a  position, 
nearly  square  in  front,  with  both  arms  resting,  the  left 
with  the  elbow  projecting  over  the  edge  two  to  four 
inches,  and  brought  near  the  body. 


This  latter  direction  cannot  be  observed  if  the  top  of 
the  table  is  much  more  than  two  inches  above  the  elbow 
joint  when  the  arm  is  dropped  by  the  side.  A  low  table 
or  high  chair  is  much  better  for  movement  practice. 


Cur  No.  1.— The  Front  Position  /—Both  arms  resting ;  elbows  projecting  over 
edge  of  desk ;  leaning  upon  the  left  arm  ;  arms  forming  right-angles  at 
elbow,  with  body  erect ;  arms  crossing  desk  obliquely.  Best  adapted 
for  practice  at  a  large  desk  or  flat  table.  The  usual  position  for  busi- 
ness writing,  whether  sitting  or  standing.  Advantageous  for  general 
practice  where  conditions  are  favorable.  Not  practicable  for  the  ordi- 
nary school  desk,  mainly  on  account  of  lack  of  space  from  front  to  back 


MOVEMENT 


The  training  of  the  arm  in  the  movements  to  be  used 
in  writing  must  be  considered  as  distinct  from  the  writ- 
ing itself.  The  indicated  movement  drills  are  simply 


CUT  No.  2.—  The  Side  Position . •—  Right  side  to  desk,  with  arm  and  paper  par- 
allel to  the  front  edge ;  body  erect,  with  left  hand  at  edge  of  desk  to 
hold  paper  and  to  steady  the  position ;  right  arm  resting  very  lightly, 
and  forming  a  light- angle  at  the  elbow;  both  feet  on  the  floor;  right 
elbow  kept  always  below  the  centre  of  page  ;  right  arm  flat  on  desk, 
and  balanced  on  the  bunch  of  muscles  near  the  elbow  ;  wrist  elevated, 
with  weight  on  nails  of  third  and  fourth  fingers  bent  inward.  Best 
adapted  for  ordinary  school  desks,  and  has  been  found  to  answer  all 
requirements. 


74  PEX-MAXSIJIP 

a  kind  of  highly  specialized  gymnastics,  having  no  nec- 
essary connection  with  the  writing  which  is  to  follow 
except  as  they  furnish  the  vehicle  for  producing  it. 
The  needed  muscular  movement  requires  a  range  of  ef- 
fective exercises  which  the  act  of  writing  does  not  fur- 
nish. In  fact  the  best  way  to  obtain  the  desired  muscular 
force,  and  through  that  the  controlled  movement,  is  to 
forget  all  about  writing  while  practising  these  prelimi- 
nary drills.  A  condition  of  strong  and  positive  vitality 
is  indispensable  ;  stout  nerves  and  supple  muscles  will 
greatly  facilitate  successful  practice. 

FIRST  POSITION  FOB  MOVEMENT  DRILLS 

This  can  most  readily  be  shown  to  the  class  by  plac- 
ing the  arm  on  the  black-board  or  wall  as  indicated  in 
the  cut,  giving  at  the  same  time  the  following  direc- 
tions. See  CUT  No.  3,  page  75. 

1st.  Eight  side  to  desk,  but  without  the  body's  touch- 
ing it. 

2d.  Both  feet  on  the  floor. 

3d.  Place  right  arm  flat  on  the  desk,  parallel  to  the 
front  edge. 

4th.  Hand  perfectly  flat  (as  in  CUT  3),  palm  touch- 
ing desk. 

5th.  Wrist  should  be  found  naturally  but  clearly 
elevated. 

XOTE. — This  elevation  of  the  wrist  above  the  desk  will  vary 
somewhat  and  the  exact  distance  cannot  be  determined  ;  but  be 
sure  that  it  is  elevated,  and  teach  the  pupil  that  this  position  of 
the  arm  and  hand  flat  on  the  desk  gives  the  natural  wrist-eleva- 
tion which  is  to  be  maintained  throughout  his  practice.  See  ele- 
vation shown  by  CUTS  1  and  2. 

6th.  Impress  upon  each  pupil  the  fact  that  when  the 


MOVEMENT 


75 


hand  is  laid  flat  with  palm  touching  desk,  the  arm  is  in 
exactly  the  correct  position,  and  that  when  the  hand  is 
turned  to  the  right,  however  slightly,  the  position  of 
the  arm  must  be  wrong. 

7th.  When  the  arm  is  correctly  placed  on  the  desk 
the  inside  should  form  a  right  angle  at  the  elbow.  This 
rule  must  be  rigidly  enforced,  whatever  the  height  of 
the  desk  may  be.  It  brings  the  arm  into  its  correct 
relative  position  to  the  body,  and  admits  of  all  move- 
ments being  freely  executed.  See  CUT  No.  2.  It  will 
be  as  well  if  the  elbow  is  kept  entirely  on  the  desk,  as 
it  generally  will  be  if  the  arm  forms  a  right-angle  ; 
but  if  allowed  to  project  at  all  the  distance  should  not 
exceed  two  or  three  inches. 


CUT  No.  3.  —Showing  position  of  hand  as  placed  flat  upon  the  desk,  before 
taking  2d  and  3d  positions,  or  commencing  a  movement  exercise. 

SECOND  POSITION.     No.  2 

The  next  step  is  to  learn  how  to  balance  on  the^ 
muscles  of  the  arm  near  the  elbow,  without  having  the 
hand  or  elbow-joint  touch  the  desk.  See  CUT  No  4.. 


76 


PENMANSHIP 


Directions. — Close  the  hand  without  changing  posi- 
tion of  the  wrist,  which  should  be  neither  lowered  nor 
raised.  The  hand  should  now  be  held  clear  of  the  desk, 
the  weight  of  the  arm  resting  lightly  on  the  bunch  of 
muscles  in  front  of  the  elbow-joint.  See  CUT  No.  6. 

THIRD  POSITION 

Without  changing  from  second  position  make  the 
direct  movement  as  illustrated  by  CUT  No.  5.  Use  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulder  in  conjunction  with  shoulder 
and  elbow  joints,  working  the  arm  back  and  forth  on 
a  line  with  the  direction  of  the  forearm,  pushing  out 
and  drawing  in,  but  without  sliding  the  sleeve. 

The  sleeve  in  this  movement  should  remain  as  station- 


Cur  No.  4.— Showing  hand  closed  and  slightly  elevated  from  desk ;  arm 
lightly  balanced  on  muscles  near  elbow.  The  hand  should  be  closetl 
tightly,  and  the  muscles  of  hand  and  arm  must  be  entirely  relaxed. 

ary  as  if  glued  to  the  desk,  while  the  wrist  works  out 
and  in,  impelled  freely  by  the  action  of  the  shoulder 
muscles.  The  action  of  the  arm  is  the  movement  which 
would  straighten  it  if  the  motion  was  unrestricted  by 
the  rest  on  the  desk. 


MOVEMENT 


77 


The  simple  motion  of  the  entire  arm  thus  produced 
on  a  line  with  the  forearm  is  the  key  to  all  subsequent 
movements,  and  must  be  practised  daily  until  the  action 
of  the  muscles  brought  into  play  becomes  easy  and 
natural.  The  vibration  of  the  muscular  rest  in  this 
movement  will  carry  the  hand  back  and  forth  a  dis- 
tance of  from  one-half  inch  to  three  inches  without 
sliding  the  sleeve,  varying  according  to  the  natural 
formation  of  the  arm  and  amount  of  practice ;  but  it 
will  be  found  that  beginners  can  materially  increase 
the  range  of  movement  by  systematic  drill. 

How  TO  EXPLAIN  MUSCULAR  MOVEMENT 
A  correct  idea  of  the  vibratory  action  of  the  forearm, 
muscles  is  obtained  by  grasping  the  right  arm  with  the 
left  hand,  as  before  indicated,  firmly  on  the  inside  just 
below  the  elbow ;  then,  holding  this  hand  stationary, 
work  the  hand  back  and  forth  on  the  direct  movement, 
the  wrist  moving  in  and  out  of  the  sleeve.  This  action 


CUT  No.  5.— Showing  action  of  hand  and  forearm,  working  back  and  forth. 
in  direct  line,  but  without  sliding  the  sleeve.  This  action  produces  the 
developing  movement  which  is  the  correct  basis  of  all  others. 

will  show  how  the  muscle-layers  by  slipping  over  each 
other  produce  what  is  called  muscular  movement. 


78 


PESTMA^SHIP 


CLASS  DRILLS 

After  the  pupils  have  learned  to  take  the  three  posi- 
tions at  command,  and  are  able  to  make  the  direct 
movement  freely,  begin  the  regular  movement  drills  as 
follows  : — 2d  position  ;  3d  position  ;  ready  ;  one-two- 
three  (repeat).  Draw  the  arm  back  quickly  at  each 


Cur  No.  6.— Showing  muscular  rest  on  forearm  near  elbow. 


Cur  No.  7.— Illustrating  position  and  pen-holding.  Holder  between  first  and 
second  fingers  and  thumb,  crossing  first  finger  in  front  of  knuckle-joint 
and  second  finger  at  the  root  of  naii ;  end  of  thumb  opposite  the  f 


CLASS   DRILLS  79 

joint  of  forefinger.  Third  and  fourth  fingers  separated  from  the  other 
two,  and  bent  inward  equally  at  the  three  joints ;  keep  entirely  relaxed 
and  resting  almost  flat  on  the  nails.  Keep  hand  and  arm  perfectly  flat, 
with  holder  pointing  at  the  head.  End  of  second  finger  not  to  exceed 
one-half  inch  above  the  desk.  This  cut  shows  the  simultaneous  action 
of  pen-point  and  finger-rest  in  forming  oval  or  straight  line  movements. 
The  arm  should  form  a  right-angle  at  the  elbow.  Wrist  elevated  above 
the  desk. 

count,  but  without  sliding  the  sleeve,  counting  150  per 
minute.  Continue  for  one  minute  without  stopping. 
Kest  one  minute,  relaxing  arm  and  hand.  Repeat  this 
drill  twice  daily,  not  less  than  10  minutes  each  time, 
paying  strict  attention  both  to  the  position  and  to  the 
character  of  the  movement  produced.  See  that  the 
arm  rests  lightly. 

FOURTH  POSITION 

You  may  now  have  the  class  take  the  several  positions 
in  regular  order,  as  explained  in  the  last  lesson  ;  and 
for  the  Fourth  Position,  place  the  hand  as  in  CUT  No. 
11.  This  may  be  called  forming  the  hand,  and  is  an 
important  part  of  the  drill.  With  scarcely  an  excep- 
tion, pupils  when  learning  script  will  have  acquired 
cramped  and  unnatural  positions  in  pen-holding.  It 
will  also  be  found  that  these  wrong  positions  have  by 
association  become  inseparable  from  the  act  of  forming 
letters.  The  first  step,  then,  should  be  to  disconnect 
the  new  position  and  movements  from  the  writing  itself, 
to  train  the  hand  into  a  correct  position  independently 
of  the  pen-holding.  During  the  first  year  in  school 
it  is  better  not  to  attempt  pen-  or  pencil-holding  in 
connection  with  movement  exercises,  but  by  aiming 
to  conform  the  habit  of  correct  position,  secure  the 
ability  to  hold  and  use  the  pen  effectively  in  the  higher 
grades.  But  in  any  grade  where  this  method  is  being 


80  PENMANSHIP 

introduced,  the  same  rule  should   be  observed  at  the 


Cur  No.  8.— Showing  how  the  band  and  pen-holder  should  appear  when  the 
pupil  is  facing  the  teacher.  When,  tho  arm  and  hand  are  kept  flat  on 
the  desk  the  holder  will  naturally  cross  the  ruled  lines  obliquely,  or  on 
the  regular  writing  slant.  When  practising  with  the  pen  what  was 
called  the  direct  movement  in  Lesson  EL,  and  which  was  made  on  a  line 
with  the  forearm,  should  now  be  modified,  and  made  in  the  oblique 
direction  towards  the  head.  This  is  indicated  by  the  line  shown  in  cut. 

beginning.  Drill  a  great  deal  without  the  pen,  and 
with  a  dry  pen  ;  get  all  the  range  of  action  you  possibly 
can ;  and  that  which  is  to  follow  will  come  not  only 
naturally,  but  easily.  Do  not  be  in  any  hurry  to  prac- 
tise writing.  There  will  be  ample  time  for  that  after  the 
movement  to  do  it  with  has  been  secured.  Faithfully 
and  intelligently  carried  out  there  can  be  no  such  thing 
as  failure  with  this  plan  of  teaching.  From  the 
Fourth  Position,  CUT  "No.  11,  make  the  modified  direct 
movement  towards  the  head  on  the  writing  slant,  as 
explained  under  CUT  No.  8.  Count  for  this  movement 


HOW   TO    GAUGE   MOVEMENT 


81 


CUT  No.  9  CUT  No.  10 

the  same  as  directed  for  "  Class  Drills  "  in  Lesson  II. 
Be  sure  that  the  third  and  fourth  fingers  are  relaxed, 
and  bent  well  inward,  and  that  they  are  sliding  freely 
on  the  nails. 

How  TO  GAUGE  MOVEMENT 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  place  your  arm  on  the  desk  in 
correct  position  and  then  to  take  an  accurate  gauge  of 


82  PENMANSHIP 

the  distance  your  hand  will  move  in  a  direct  line  with- 
out sliding  the  sleeve  ;  then  by  continued  practice 
endeavor  to  increase  the  range.  This  course  should 
also  be  adopted  with  the  class. 

PEN-HOLDING 

After  the  hand  has  by  practice  been  correctly  formed, 
pen-holding  is  by  no  means  difficult.  Place  the  hand 
carefully  as  in  CUT  No.  11  ;  then  separating  the  thumb 


CUT  No.  11 

slightly  from  the  forefinger,  insert  the  peri-holder, 
pushing  it  down  until  the  point  just  touches  the  desk. 
Now  replace  the  thumb  and  note  if  the  directions  as  illus- 
trated in  CUTS  7  and  8  have  been  observed.  With  the 
hand  and  pen  as  now  placed,  drill  the  class  once  more 
on  the  straight  line  movement,  made  obliquely  towards 
the  head,  counting  the  time  as  indicated  before.  Make 
these  movements  energetically,  allowing  the  class  to 
count  part  of  the  time.  The  arm  should  rest  lightly  on 
the  desk.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  class  lift  the 
arm  occasionally,  and  replace  it  carefully  on  the  desk 


VALUE    OF    MOVEMENT   DRILLS  83 

with  just  enough  bearing  to  keep  the  sleeve  from  sliding. 
SPECIAL  EXERCISE  FOR  MUSCULAR  DEVELOPMENT 
Have  the  class  stand,  and,  with  both  arms  extended 
horizontally,  open  and  shut  the  hand  twenty-five  to 
fifty  times.  Shut  the  hands  firmly  and  throw  them 
wide  open  with  a  quick  motion,  spreading  the  fingers 
at  each  action.  This  drill  if  followed  will  materially 
increase  the  size,  strength,  and  flexibility  of  these 
muscles.  By  taking  a  firm  hold  of  the  right  arm  on 
the  inside  below  the  elbow  with  the  left  hand,  and  then 
opening  and  shutting  the  right  hand,  the  action  of  the 
muscles  controlling  this  movement  is  clearly  indicated." 
Have  the  class  try  this. 

CLASS  DRILL  ON  HAND  FORMING 
Starting  from  the  first  position  with  the  hand  flat  on 
the  desk  : — At  the  word  One:  bend  the  forearm  back 
into  a  vertical  position,  with  elbow  resting,  and  hand 
open  as  in  CUT  No.  9.  At  Two  :  form  the  thumb  and 
fingers  into  the  correct  position,  as  in  CUT  No.  10.  At 
Three  :  drop  lightly  upon  the  desk,  with  the  hand  in 
position  shown  in  CUT  No.  11.  Order  of  drill  : — At- 
tention ;  First  position ;  One ;  Two ;  Three.  After 
repeating  ten  times,  follow  with  the  oblique  movement 
drill.  This  will  be  found  especially  helpful  for  young 
pupils. 

VALUE  OF  MOVEMENT  DRILLS 

In  the  use  of  finger  movement  the  muscles  of  the 
arm  may  be  disciplined  but  cannot  be  developed ;  but 
it  will  be  found  that  the  process  of  muscular  develop- 
ment as  outlined  in  these  lessons  will  in  itself  effect 
the  needed  discipline. 


84  PENMANSHIP 

Strength  of  movement  can  come  only  through  the 
creation  of  muscular  force,  which  alone  will  give  the 
freedom  of  arm  action  necessaly  to  produce  bold  and 
definite  execution  with  the  pen. 

THE  SIDE  OB  LATEKAL  MOVEMENT 

For  the  reason  that  it  assists  directly  in  forming 
every  letter,  and  in  addition  carries  the  hand  from  let- 
ter to  letter  and  from  word  to  word  across  the  page, 
the  lateral  movement  becomes  the  controlling  action  in 
writing.  It  is  the  force  which  will  enable  you  to  utilize 
all  other  movements,  and  must  be  thoroughly  mastered 
at  the  beginning. 

PRELIMINARY  PRACTICE 

Movement  should  always  precede  form  :  that  is,  a 
given  form  must  be  considered  as  the  result  of  a  specific 
movement ;  hence  a  careful  preparatory  drill,  first  with 
the  hand  correctly  formed,  and  then  with  a  dry  pen, 
will  be  an  essential  part  of  these  elementary  exercises. 

Place  the  arm  in  position  as  is  shown  by  CUT  No.  2, 
with  the  hand  formed  and  placed  as  in  CUT  No.  11. 
The  arm  should  be  placed  four  inches  from  the  edge 
of  the  desk  and  parallel  with  it :  upper  and  lower  arm 
forming  a  right-angle.  Now  balancing  lightly  on  the 
muscular  rest,  and  using  that  as  a  pivot,  swing  the 
forearm  back  and  forth  a  distance  of  about  eight  inches. 
As  only  the  elbow-joint  should  be  used  in  this  action, 
watch  the  wrist,  and  be  sure  that  there  is  no  movement 
of  that  joint.  The  hand  is  to  be  carried  on  nails  of  third 
and  fourth  fingers  relaxed  and  bent  well  underneath. 

Have  the  class  practise  this,  counting  one,  two,  until 
every  hand  moves  freely,  in  perfect  concert,  and  with- 


PRELIMINARY    PRACTICE  85 

out  apparent  effort.  The  pupil  should  be  especially 
taught  to  watch  his  own  hand,  to  observe  if  it  be  cor- 
rectly formed,  and  to  measure  the  distance  of  eight 
inches  accurately.  See  that  the  arm  lies  perfectly  flat 
on  the  desk,  that  the  muscles  are  entirely  relaxed,  that 
the  elbow  action  is  unrestricted. 

When  this  action  of  the  arm  has  become  free  and 
natural,  place  the  pen  in  the  hand  and  continue  the 
same  movement,  but  without  the  pen-point  touch- 
ing the  desk.  To  place  the  pen,  leave  the  right  hand, 
formed  into  position  as  in  CUT  No.  11,  take  pen 
in  left  hand,  separate  thumb  of  right  slightly  from  first 
finger,  and  insert  the  pen-holder,  pushing  it  down  until 
the  point  touches  the  desk.  Then  raising  the  pen  just 
enough  to  clear  the  desk,  replace  the  thumb  opposite 
the  first  joint  of  the  first  finger.  See  CUTS  7  and  8. 

Continue  this  pen  drill  until  every  pupil  holds  the 
pen  correctly,  keep  the  hand  properly  formed,  and 
make  the  movement  with  a  well  indicated  force. 

It  will  be  found,  as  stated  on  page  82,  that  every 
pupil's  habit  of  pen-holding  has  become  directly  asso- 
ciated with  the  letter-forming,  and  if  asked  at  this 
point  to  write  a  word,  he  would  be  quite  certain  to 
relapse  into  the  old  position.  It  is  also  evident  that 
this  firmly  fixed  habit  of  finger  movement  combined 
with  a  cramped  position  can  best  be  overcome  by  the 
creation  of  a  stronger  counter  habit  of  arm  movement, 
using  the  more  natural  position. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  stated  that  the  first  pen- 
stroke  to  be  made  with  these  movements  should  be  one 
requiring  no  effort  as  regards  formation.  And  right 
here  is  a  fundamental  point.  It  is  comparatively  easy  to 
teach  a  pupil  these  movements,  but  not  so  easy  to  get 


86 


PENMANSHIP 


him  to  understand  clearly  that  to  have  any  special  value 
they  must  become  self-recording;  that  the  less  effort 
made  so  far  as  the  resulting  form  is  concerned  the  better 
will  be  that  result.  We  usually  find  more  success  in 
teaching  new  habits  than  in  trying  to  induce  pupils  to 
let  go  of  old  ones.  To  remove  the  principal  cause  by 
disconnecting  these  positions  and  movements  entirely 
from  the  act  of  writing  for  the  time  being,  is  therefore 
the  first  step  necessary  in  this  direction. 

MATERIALS  FOR  PRACTICE 

For  the  exercises  which  follow,  foolscap  of  a  good 
quality,  or  the  largest  size  of  letter  paper,  should  be 
used.  Foolscap  cut  into  quarter  sheets  gives  nearly 
the  width  of  the  ordinary  copy-book  page,  and  makes 
a  convenient  form  for  the  purpose.  Note  paper  and 
the  smaller  size  of  tablets  will  not  answer  for  this  prac- 
tice. A  fine  pointed  flexible  pen  like  "  Gillott's  604  " 
is  decidedly  the  best.  Good  black  ink  is  a  necessity. 

THE  RECORD  OF  A  MOVEMENT 

Have  the  class  take  the  "  Side"  position  as  shown  in 
CUT  No.  2,  page  73.  The  paper  should  be  placed  close 
to  the  edge  of  the  desk  and  parallel  with  it.  The  elbow 
must  be  beiow  the  centre  of  the  page,  hand  and  wrist 


EXERCISE   Ko.  1 

crossing   the   ruled   lines  vertically,  and  with  the  pen 
held  at  the  middle  of  the  top  line,  without  touching. 


KECORD   OF   A   MOVEMENT  87 

"With  the  arm  balanced  lightly  on  the  muscular  rest  near 
the  elbow,  and  using  this  as  a  pivot,  swing  the  hand 
back  and  forth  across  the  page,  gliding  on  the  nails  of 
the  finger  rest.  If  no  joint  except  the  elbow  is  used, 
the  movement  of  the  pen-point  would  if  recorded  trace 
the  arc  of  a  circle,  whose  radius  would  be  the  distance 
from  the  pivotal  rest  to  the  pen-point.  Now  take  ink 
and  proceed  as  follows  :  At  the  word  "  Position  "  place 
the  hand  and  pen  at  the  centre,  as  directed  above. 
"  Ready  " :  swing  the  hand  back  to  the  left  edge  of 
paper.  Next  swing  the  hand  to  the  right  entirely  across 
the  page,  counting  one,  back  to  the  left  edge  counting 
two.  After  six  preliminary  swings,  and  starting  from 
the  left  side  at  the  word  " Eight"  let  the  pen-point 
drop  lightly  on  the  paper,  and  trace  a  record  of  the 
curved  movement  across  the  page  ;  at  the  word  "  Left  " 
lift  the  pen-point  enough  to  clear  and  swing  back.  Ee- 
peat  this  curved  movement  stroke  six  times  but  only 
making  a  record  while  moving  to  the  right.  The  re- 
sult should  be  similar  to  Exercise  No.  1,  but  nearly 
twice  as  long.  Be  very  certain  that  no  effort  is  made 
to  form  a  curved  line.  Let  tne  hand  swing  freely, 
merely  allowing  the  pen-point  to  record  the  natural 
movement.  The  pen  starting  from  a  given  line  at  the 
left  although  moving  on  a  curve  should  stop  on  the  same 
line  at  the  right,  and  the  hand  and  paper  should  be  so 
adjusted  as  to  accomplish  this  without  effort.  While 
practising  from  this  lesson,  stop  frequently  and  read 
over  the  questions  at  the  end.  You  will  find  this  not  only 
helpful  in  your  own  practice,  but  very  useful  in  the  class 
drills.  These  directions  are  given  in  detail  precisely  as 
you  are  to  present  them  to  your  pupils,  and  the  repeat- 


88  PEtfMAKSHIP 

ing  of  the  questions  while  they  are  at  work  calls  atten- 
tion directly  to  the  most  important  points  of  the 
instruction.  In  practising  Exercise  No.  1,  hr/ve  the 
group  of  lines  placed  no  more  than  J  of  an  inch  apart, 
and  the  lines  themselves  the  same  distance  as  shown  in 
copy.  After  filling  a  page  turn  the  paper  and  make 
the  same  exercise  across  the  ruled  lines,  but  with  as 
much  care  as  before. 


EXERCISE  No.  2 

The  directions  for  practising  Exercise  No.  2,  are  the 
same  as  for  No.  1,  except  that  the  record  line  for  No.  2 
is  made  continuously  in  both  directions  without  lifting 
the  pen.  The ;  rate  of  speed  in  this  movement  record 
fihould  be  about  sixty  strokes  per  minute.  The  order 
of  class  drills  may  be :  1.  Position  at  desk.  2.  Posi- 
tion of  hand  and  pen  at  top  of  page,  and  middle  of 
line.  3.  Swing  the  left,  "Ready".  4.  Count  six  for 
preliminary  strokes.  5.  Eight,  left,  right,  left,  for  the 
record  lines.  If,  as  will  sometimes  be  the  case,  the 
pupils  insist  upon  trying  to  make  the  curved  line,  have 
him  swing  the  hand  back  and  forth  a  few  times,  and 
then  looking  away  from  the  paper  allow  the  pen  to 
touch  and  trace  the  line  without  seeing  it. 

Attention  is  again  called  to  the  fact  that  while  the 
object  should  be  ultimately  to  connect  the  movements 
with  the  formative  process,  form  must  for  the  present 
be  considered  as  a  result  only,  and  so  far  as  possible 
should  be  entirely  separated  from  all  previously  ac- 


QUESTION'S   FOR   EXAMINATION 


89 


quired  habits  of  construction.  In  fact  a  pupil  should 
be  instructed  not  to  try  to  form  anything,  but  simply 
permit  the  arm  to  swing  naturally  while  allowing  the 
pen-point  to  trace  this  action  on  tho  paper.  The 
amount  of  time  which  may  profitably  be  given  to  the 
practice  of  the  exercises  of  this  lesson  cannot  be  definite- 
ly stated  ;  but  there  is  little  danger  of  overdoing  it,  and 
the  more  firmly  this  habit  of  position  and  movement 
becomes  fixed,  the  more  readily  will  a  pupil  understand 
and  make  application  of  the  instructions  which  are  to 

follow. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  EXAMINATION 

Are  you  in  a  proper  position  at  the  desk  ?  Are  both 
feet  on  the  floor,  the  left  in  advance  ?  Does  the  arm 
lie  flat  on  the  desk,  and  rest  lightly  ?  Do  you  keep 
the  pen-holder  pointing  at  the  head  ?  (See  CUT  8,  page 
80.)  Do  you  slide  freely  on  the  nails  (hand  rest)  ? 


CUT  No.  12 

Does  the  arm  form  a  right  angle  at  the  elbow  ?  Are 
you  swinging  the  hand  freely  and  with  a  natural  move- 
ment from  left  to  right  ?  Are  you  using  the  wrist- 


90  PENMANSHIP 

joint  ?  Does  the  record  show  a  true  curve,  and  are  the 
Jines  parallel  ?  Have  you  been  careful  about  counting  ? 
Has  the  elbow  been  constantly  kept  below  the  centre  of 
the  page  ? 

NOTE. — This  position  of  the  arm  rest  below  the  centre  of  the 
paper  should  be  strictly  maintained,  and  never  be  changed  in 
writing  across  the  page. 

Is  the  weight  of  the  hand  carried  on  the  nails  ?  Do 
you  hold  the  practice  paper  in  position  with  the  left 
hand  ? 

It  is  once  more  indicated  that  the  object  of  these 
lessons  is  not  to  teach  the  forms  of  letters  except  as  a 
result,  and  that  such  exercises  as  may  be  introduced 
for  the  purpose  of  developing  or  disciplining  the  various 
movements  to  be  used  in  writing,  are  to  be  employed 
suggestively.  Even  where  letters  or  combinations  of 
the  same  are  given,  they  are  not  to  be  practised  imita- 
tively,  but  merely  as  a  test  of  movement.  For  example: 
If,  after  practising  on  the  movement  designed  to  pro- 
duce the  first  part  of  the  capital  W,  an  attempt  to  form 
this  letter  is  unsuccessful,  you  are  to  assume  that  the 
failure  is  due  to  defective  movement,  and  that  more 
practice  on  the  required  stroke  is  needed.  A  properly 
developed,  well  disciplined  action  of  the  arm  can  be 
depended  upon.  Put  aside  tha  idea  that  you  must  first 
learn  to  imitate  a  given  form  of  letter.  Confine  your 
efforts  to  the  acquirement  of  the  natural  unrestricted 
action  of  the  shoulder  muscles,  so  directed  as  to  pro- 
duce certain  definite  movements  of  the  forearm,  with- 
out any  use  of  the  wrist  or  finger  joints.  Keep  driving 
at  this  in  a  systematic  manner,  and  the  desired  re- 
sults in  formation  will  not  be  lacking.  But  so  long  as 


QUESTIONS   FOR   EXAMINATION  91 

the  writing  exercise  retains  any  of  the  elements  of  a 
drawing  lesson,  as  commonly  understood,  your  efforts 
will  not  only  be  restricted,  but  in  all  probability  de- 
feated. 


EXERCISE  No.  3 

Make  it  a  rule  to  gain  considerable  freedom  and  con- 
trol in  any  given  movement  before  you  begin  to  look 
for  correct  form  as  the  result  of  its  record.  Exercise 
No.  3  will  aid  directly  in  gaining  all  other  movements, 
and  some  which  are  to  follow  cannot  be  learned  with- 
out it. 

When  practised  as  a  direct  movement,  see  CUT  No. 
12,  it  is  made  by  drawing  in  and  pushing  out  the  arm  in 
its  own  direction,  using  the  shoulder  muscles  only  and 
without  sliding  the  sleeve.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have 
each  pupil  take  a  careful  gauge  of  his  direct  movement, 
measured  by  the  ruled  spaces  on  the  paper,  and  then 
seek  to  increase  it  as  much  as  possible  by  practice. 

As  given  in  Exercise  No.  3,  the  action  is  modified  so 
as  to  make  the  stroke  towards  the  head.  Try  to  get  an 
easy  range  in  this  direction  of  at  least  three  ruled 
spaces,  and  without  any  use  of  the  thumb  or  finger 
joints.  This  movement  is  intended  to  make  the  straight 
line  in  the  down  stroke  of  all  letters,  and  when  made 
from  the  correct  position,  in  the  direction  indicated 
above,  will  produce  the  proper  slant  for  each  individual. 


92  PENMANSHIP 

This  slant  will  be  found  to  vary  but  little  from  the 
established  standard. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  PRACTICE 

Place  the  hand  and  arm  in  position  as  illustrated  and 
explained  by  CUTS  No.  7  and  8,  pages  78  and  80. 
Next  take  ink  and  let  the  pen-point  rest  without 
touching,  at  the  centre  of  the  page  near  the  top.  Now 
swing  the  hand  back  and  forth  across  the  page  a  few 
times  on  the  natural  curve  movement,  stopping  at  the 
left  side.  Then  with  the  pen-holder  pointing  at  the 
head  make  a  few  preliminary  movements  in  that  direc- 
tion, drawing  the  arm  into  the  sleeve  and  pushing  it 
out,  without  any  sliding  action  on  the  desk.  Without 
checking  this  action  let  the  pen-point  touch  the  paper 
and  trace  the  lines  as  in  Exercise  No.  3. 

In  the  preliminary  practice  begin  counting  quite 
briskly  1-2-3-4-5,  making  the  downward  stroke  for  each 
count,  and  be  careful  to  keep  the  speed  the  same  while 
making  the  ink  record.  Do  not  allow  the  arm  rest  to 
change  from  the  position  below  the  centre  of  the  page. 
Watch  the  movement  of  the  hand-rest  on  the  nails  of 
third  and  fourth  fingers,  as  this  action  must  always 
coincide  with  that  of  the  pen.  Observe  the  character 
of  the  strokes  made,  glancing  occasionally  at  the  copy 
but  never  trying  to  imitate  it,  except  by  use  of  the 
shoulder  muscles. 

As  illustrated  by  this  exercise,  the  next  movement, 
although  the  reverse  of  No.  2,  page  73,  is  much  more 
difficult.  The  swinging  action  of  the  forearm  is  the 
same,  but  instead  of  the  natural  sweep,  the  oblique 
movement  of  No.  3  is  so  combined  with  it  as  to  con- 
tinually draw  in  the  arm  until  the  centre  of  the  under 


DIRECTIONS   FOR   PRACTICE 


93 


curve  is  reached,  whon  it  is  again  relaxed  or  pushed 
out  gradually  as  either  side  of  the  paper  is  approached. 
The  ease  with  which  this  stroke  may  be  executed  will 
depend  very  much  on  the  freedom  secured  with  No.  3. 
In  all  of  these  exercises,  and  for  all  purposes  of  practice 
or  of  writing,  the  elbow  should  be  kept  constantly  below 


EXERCISE  No.  4 

the  centre  of  the  page.  Always  take  this  position  with 
the  pen-point  at  the  middle  of  the  line,  and  then  swing 
back  to  the  left  side.  This  insures  a  command  of  the 
entire  line,  besides  giving  the  down  stroke  the  uniform 
slant,  Make  this  exercise  entirely  across  the  page,  and 
get  all  the  action  you  can  without  sliding  the  sleeve, 
or  using  the  wrist  or  finger  joints. 

The  movement  to  be  gained  is  that  used  in  forming 
the  under  curves  of  small  letters.  No.  1  forms  the 
upper  curves,  and  No.  3  the  straight  lines.  It  will  be 
seen  therefore  that  these  three  exercises  will  produce 
elementally  all  the  movements  used  in  making  the 
small  letters.  Eate  of  speed  not  more  than  50  strokes 
per  minute. 


EXERCISE  No.  4 


PENMANSHIP 


Exercise  5  the  same  arm  action  as  No.  4,  slightly 
modified.  Let  the  forearm  swing  freely  back  and  forth 
across  the  page,  at  the  same  time  training  the  hand  to 
make  the  lines  perfectly  straight  and  parallel  to  each 
other.  At  first  make  them  only  in  one  direction,  or 
while  moving  to  the  right  ;  after  this  becomes  easy^  let 
the  pen  remain  on  the  paper  and  trace  a  record  in  both 
directions.  When  beginning  to  practise  this  exercise 
rule  the  paper  down  the  centre  and  make  the  line  half 
the  distance  across  ;  afterwards  try  to  cover  the  whole 
distance. 

This  will  be  found  to  be  an  excellent  drill  to  steady 
the  arm  action  in  the  lateral  movement,  and  it  will 
enable  you  to  write  entirely  across  the  page  on  a  straight 
line,  without  lifting  the  pen  or  changing  the  fixed 
position  of  the  arm  rest.  It  will  also  prove  very  bene- 
ficial in  overcoming  the  nervous  action  which  often 
makes  the  lines  in  writing  irregular.  Make  about  fifty 
strokes  per  minute. 


EXERCISE  No.  6 

Rule  the  paper  down  the  centre  as  directed  for  No.  5, 
and  write  half  way  across.  In  this  exercise  the  design 
is  to  associate  the  straight  lines  of  the  lateral  movement 
with  the  forming  process  as  required  in  making  the 
letter  o.  After  taking  position  and  practising  the  pre- 
liminary swings,  let  the  pen  touch  and  record  a  straight 
line.  Swing  the  forearm  again  before  making  the 


QUESTIONS   FOR  EXAMINATIONS  95 

next  stroke ;  then  let  the  pen  touch  and  slide  to  the 
centre,  form  the  o  with  the  shoulder  action  alone,  and 
then  finish  the  line.  Make  the  first  stroke  on  the  ruled 
line,  and  make  three  others  including  the  o  twice, 
between  that  and  the  next  line.  Eepeat  this  process, 
never  omitting  the  preliminary  swings,  down  one  side 
of,  the  page,  and  then  complete  the  other  half  in  the 
same  manner.  Now  turn  the  paper  and  repeat  the 
exercise  across  the  written  lines,  covering  the  whole 
distance,  if  you  are  using  quarter  sheets  of  foolscap  as 
directed.  There  must  be  no  action  of  the  finger,  thumb, 
or  wrist  joints,  the  shoulder  muscles  only  being  em- 
ployed. Do  not  make  the  movement  too  rapidly  at 
ifirst. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  EXAMINATION 

Did  you  practise  thoroughly  on  the  "  direct "  move- 
ment before  taking  the  pen  ?  After  this  did  you  drill 
•on  it  as  an  oblique  movement  towards  the  head  ?  Were 
the  hand  and  forearm  kept  in  position  to  cross  the 
Tilled  lines  vertically  ?  Was  the  elbow  at  all  times 
below  the  centre  of  page  ?  Can  you  get  a  range  of 
more  than  two  spaces  on  the  oblique  movement  ?  Have 
you  made  the  pen  and  ink  strokes  without  using  the 
fingers  ?  Have  you  practised  Exercise  No.  4,  until  the 
record  shows  an  improvement  ?  Can  you  make  this 
stroke  without  sliding  the  sleeves  or  changing  the 
position  of  the  arm  rest  ?  It  is  not  expected  that  any 
•one  without  much  practice  can  execute  this  undercurve 
movement  so  that  it  will  compare  with  the  results  of 
Exercise  No.  2  on  page  73.  But  it  is  a  very  useful  drill 
.and  should  have  considerable  time  given  to  it.  Have 


96  PENMANSHIP 

you  kept  the  arm,  and  held  the  pen  as  shown  in  CUTS 
7  and  8,  on  pages  78  and  80  ? 

In  the  five  lessons  already  given,  we  have  endeavored 
to  present  a  comprehensi">  plan  of  practice  for  the 
development  of  movements  to  K>O  used  in  writing.  We 
have  several  times  suggested  that  this  part  of  the  process 
was  of  the  utmost  importance.  It  has  also  been  stated 
that  the  greater  portion  of  this  required  free  action  of 
the  arm  can  be  secured  better,  independently  of  any 
use  of  the  pen.  In  other  words  the  more  we  come  to 
depend  upon  simple  drills  which  will  bring  into  action 
the  muscles  to  be  employed,  developing  the  natural 
movements,  and  bringing  them  under  control,  the  more 
immediate  and  lasting  will  be  the  results  to  the  indi- 
vidual pupils. 

Take  up  any  code  of  gymnastic  drills  designed  to 
strengthen  and  render  flexible  the  movement  of  the 
arms  and  hands,  and  use  freely  in  connection  with  the 
exercises  given  in  these  lessons.  But  as  a  one-sided 
development  is  not  wise,  use  both  arms  in  all  such  sup- 
plementary exercises. 

If  a  pupil  has  been  correctly  instructed  in  the  various 
movements  and  pen  exercises  heretofore  given,  he  should 
be  prepared  to  make  some  useful  application  of  this  in 
writing.  Still  it  is  very  evident  that  the  first  requirements 
in  this  direction  should  be  simple.  The  habit  of  using- 
the  fihgers  in  constructing  letters  will  still  be  strong 
and  the  process  of  overcoming  this  tendency  must  be  a 
gradual  one.  By  using  the  straight  line  made  with  a 
free  swing  of  the  arm,  in  connection  with  the  letters, 
the  disposition  to  use  the  fingers  will  be  lessened,  and 
finally  the  new  habit  will  become  the  stronger. 


PRACTICE   EXERCISES  97 

The  v/idth  of  the  column  does  not  admit  of  present- 
ing the  exercises  here  the  exact  size  they  should  be 
written  ;  hence  in  practice  the  spacing  between  the  let- 
ters should  be  increased,  although  the  letters  need  not 
be  made  any  larger. 

With  second  and  third  year  pupils  there  may  at  first 
be  some  difficulty  in  sliding  the  hand  entirely  across  the 
page  on  a  perfectly  straight  line,  but  so  far  as  possible 
the  exercise  should  be  written  the  whole  distance.  The 
aim  should  be  to  obtain  range  and  freedom  of  action, 
and  the  more  you  have  the  better. 


&                   o 

0 

CJ 

EXERCISE  No.  7 

The  directions  for  practising  this  are  the  s&me  as  roi 
No.  6.  First  take  position  and  make  preliminary 
swings.  Then  let  the  pen  touch  and  record  the  straight 
line.  Swing  the  hand  back  and  forth  again  and  then 
form  the  next  line,  making  the  "o"  twice.  Be  sure 
that  the  letter  is  formed  by  the  shoulder  muscles.  The 
spacing  should  be  uniform,  as  well  as  the  distance  be- 
tween the  lines. 

~o  o  ^' ' 

(J         "  0  0    ^'^"5 

EXERCISE  No.  8 

Careful  practice  on  this  exercise,  may  be  followed  by 
increasing  the  number  of  letters  in  each  line  up  to  six, 


98 


PENMANSHIP 


but  always  observing  the  indicated  rules  for  position 
and  movement.  It  is  not  well  to  write  too  rapidly  at 
this  time,  but  there  should  always  be  a  forceful  swing 
of  the  hand  in  sliding  between  the  letters.  The  pen 
strokes  should  be  uniform,  but  decisive  in  action. 


EXERCISE  No.  9 

In  this  you  will  make  the  undercurved  line  in  form- 
ing the  letter  "  i ".  First  practise  the  exercise  half  way 
across  the  page,  until  the  curve  can  be  correctly  formed 
by  the  sweep  of  the  hand.  Then  extend  it  the  whole 
distance,  forming  two  letters ;  afterwards  gradually 
increasing  the  number  to  six.  The  down  stroke  for 
the  "i"  must  be  straight,  and  upon  the  regular  writing 
slant.  It  is  made  by  drawing  back  the  arm  towards  the 
head.  In  forming  this  letter  the  movement  need  not 
stop  at  the  turn,  but  should  be  continuous. 


EXERCISE  No.  10 

Practice  on  Nos.  8  and  9  will  lead  naturally  to  the 
construction  of  this  exercise,  if  you  will  simply  allow 
the  movement  to  produce  the  form  without  attempting 
to  make  it  with  the  finger  action.  Starting  with  the 
undercurve,  swing  the  hand  back  so  as  to  increase  the 
alant  of  the  "o",  and  then  make  the  "i"  to  finish  the 


PRACTICE    EXERCISES 


99 


** a".  As  you  increase  the  number  of  letters,  be  careful 
to  start  the  connecting  stroke  as  a  distinct  undercurve. 
This  may  slightly  diminish  the  apparent  width  of  the 
"  a  ",  but  need  not  be  considered  an  error  in  form. 


EXERCISE  No.  11 

The  directions  for  writing  standard  script  give  the 
height  and  width  of  "n"  as  being  equal.  For  the 
present  we  will  use  another  scale,  which  makes  the 
width  two-thirds  the  height.  As  this  is  the  proportion 
of  letter  " o",  as  we  generally  form  it,  we  have  a  con- 
venient scale  for  measurement.  Let  the  hand  swing 
naturally  in  forming  the  upper  curve,  make  the  down 
stroke  by  drawing  back  the  arm  on  the  regular  slant, 
form  the  second  stroke  so  as  to  make  the  width  two- 
thirds  the  height,  and  finish  the  line  with  a  full  under- 
curve sweep. 

The  upper  and  lower  turns  are  to  be  made  without 
stopping  the  movement.  Gradually  increase  the  num- 
ber of  letters  in  the  line,  being  particular  about  the 
width  and  the  turns,  upper  and  lower,  of  each. 

If  you  form  the  habifc  of  swinging  the  hand  freely 
across  the  page  as  a  preliminary  drill  before  making  the 


EXERCISE  No. 


100 


PENMANSHIP 


given  strokes  for  any  exercise,  you  will  soon  learn  to 
depend  upon  the  movement  to  carry  it  in  the  direction 
of  a  straight  line.  The  required  curves  being  naturally 
formed  from  this  movement  with  but  a  slight  exertion, 
the  construction  of  the  letters  becomes  quite  easy. 

Make  the  "m"  twice  the  width  of  the  "  o  ",  and  the 
upper  and  lower  turns  without  stopping  the  movement. 

With  the  hand  correctly  placed,  the  action  of  the 
third  and  fourth  fingers  sliding  on  the  paper  should 
trace  the  same  form  as  the  pen-point. 


EXERCISE  No.  13 

In  writing  this  the  full  width  of  a  page,  the  spacing 
will  be  so  much  increased  as  to  change  the  appearance 
of  the  word.  Make  the  first  stroke  to  "  m  "  with  a  free 
swing,  the  uiroke  to  "a"  an  undercurve,  the  stroke 
between  "a"  and  "n"  nearly  a  straight  line,  and  the 
last  stroke  an  undercurve.  The  f  ( n  "  should  be  a  trifle 
narrower  than  the  "a".  The  fact  that  you  do  not  get 
a  perfect  formation  need  not  discourage  you.  Look 
upon  all  these  lessons  as  movement  drills,  and  give  your 
attention  mainly  to  that. 

The  exercises  given  with  this  lesson  will  illustrate 
how  the  first  three  movements  as  given  in  lessons  4  and 
5, — the  upper  curve  (convex),  the  lower  curve  (concave), 
and  the  oblique  straight  line, — may  find  application  in 
forming  naturally  the  letters  and  connecting  them  into 
words. 


QUESTIONS   FOR   EXAMINATION  101 

It  will  be  evident  that  if  these  simple  and  easily 
acquired  movements  can  be  made  so  useful  in  learning 
to  write,  the  time  spent  in  training  the  muscles  of  th^ 
arm  to  execute  them  with  freedom  and  precision  is 
well  invested.  It  may  also  show  the  importance  of 
becoming  thoroughly  grounded  in  them  before  advanc- 
ing to  their  general  application  in  writing.  There  is 
not  a  movement  nor  any  combination  of  movements 
essential  to  free  rapid  penmanship,  which  cannot  be 
better  taught,  first  without  the  pen,  secondly  on  simple 
lines,  and  thirdly  on  exercises  containing  but  one  let- 
ter, than  by  attempting  to  use  words  and  sentences  for 
•practice.  Reason  and  common  sense  support  this  theory. 
<~ive  your  pupils  the  power  to  do  these  simple  things, 
let  taem  practise  until  they  become  habits  of  movement, 
supplement  this  by  definite  instruction  as  to  the  scope 
and  value  of  the  training,  and  you  may  be  assured  that 
they  will  not  fail  to  find  the  means  of  application. 

"When  practising  these  exercises  be  sure  that  the  arm 
AS  resting  very  lightly  on  the  forearm  muscles.  It  must 
be  held  so  as  to  move  freely  in  every  direction.  A  goo^ 
plan  is  to  lift  the  arm  occasionally,  replacing  it  lightly 
on  'the  desk.  Another  point  is  to  learn  how  to  carry 
the  weight  of  the  hand  on  the  nails  of  the  third  and 
fourth  fingers,  to  avoid  undue  pressure  on  the  pen-point, 
and  to  keep  the  lines  of  uniform  thickness.  Thess 
fingers  should  be  completely  relaxed  and  kept  bent  well 
underneath. 

I  must  again  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  under 
this  plan  of  hand  training,  the  simple  exercises  are  the 
really  important  ones.  Designed  to  prepare  the  way  for 
certain  success  on  those  more  difficult,  they  cannot 


102  PiJSTMAXSHIP 

safely  be  neglected.  Do  not  imagine  that  a  slight 
knowledge  of  all  will  be  of  more  value  than  the  com- 
plete mastery  of  the  simplest  one  given.  It  is  far  better 
to  exhaust  every  reasonable  effort  to  become  perfect  in 
the  few  foundation  principles  of  both  movement  and 
form,  before  seeking  further  advancement.  Working 
out  the  lessons  as  given  in  these  directions  the  first  time 
will  no  doubt  benefit  you,  but  every  additional  time 
that  you  work  them  out  will  benefit  you  still  more.  A 
little  patience  and  a  good  deal  of  perseverance  will  at 
this  period  of  your  experience  prove  very  helpful  m 
the  end. 

THE  PRACTICAL  APPLICATION 

Having  acquired  the  movements  which  will  form 
naturally  the  letters  of  one  word,  the  next  step  will  be 
to  apply  these  same  movements  to  the  writing  of  other 
letters  and  other  words.  No  copy  will  be  required, 
either  for  yourself  or  for  your  pupils,  in  teaching  this 
application.  Take  for  instance  the  word  main,  and 
practise  it  with  the  same  spacing  action  used  in  writing 
exercise  No.  13.  Be  sure  that  you  retain  the  swinging 
movement  of  the  arm,  with  the  pen  sliding  up  to  a  letter, 
forming  it  with  the  arm  action  alone,  and  then  sliding 
again  to  the  next  letter,  until  the  word  shall  have  been 
completed.  At  first,  space  sufficiently  to  carry  the 
word  entirely  across  a  foolscap  page.  This  spacing 
movement  is  the  key  to  a  free  running  hand.  After 
writing  the  word  ten  times,  reduce  the  spacing  some- 
what and  try  it  again.  But  for  the  present  keep  the 
distance  between  the  letters  at  least  half  an  inch  as  the 
narrowest  spacing.  Then  in  their  order  practise  writ- 
ing the  following  list  of  words  :  Moan,  time,  dimes. 


THE    PRACTICAL    APPLICATION  103 

cause,  rained,  lamps,  flamed,  liinged,  queenly,  thinking, 
abruptly,  enjoined,  weaving,  taxing. 

You  are  to  proceed  in  exactly  the  same  manner  with 
pupils.  Having  first  taught  them  to  write  a  simple 
word  with  the  arm  action  and  spacing  movement,  begin 
at  once  dictating  other  words,  and  gradually  force  them 
to  teach  themselves  the  true  application  of  all  movements. 
This  can  be  done  in  almost  every  instance,  and  you 
will  be  surprised  at  the  immediate  gain  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  writing.  The  next  step  will  be  to  insist 
upon  the  use  of  the  arm  action  and  spacing  movement 
in  the  regular  spelling  exercises.  And  if  you  insist 
you  will  not  fail  to  get  it.  It  should  of  course  be 
understood  that  all  the  work  here  indicated  must  be 
written  with  pen  and  ink.  It  is  absolutely  certain  that 
penmanship  cannot  be  taught  in  the  writing  class  alone. 
If  any  considerable  part  of  the  daily  lesson-getting  and 
lesson-record  is  done  with  slate  or  lead  pencils  you  need 
not  expect  any  permanent  gain  in  penmanship.  Penc'L 
work  is  almost  without  exception  careless  work,  and 
careless  work  here  will  inevitably  produce  careless 
writing  habits.  Once  get  your  pupils  into  the  habit  of 
doing  careful  written  work  all  day  long,  and  you  need 
have  no  fear  in  regard  to  satisfactory  penmanship 
results.  You  are  to  accomplish  this  gradually  ;  step  by 
step,  one  thing  at  a  time.  If  you  now  see  your  way 
towards  getting  results  in  the  written  spelling  work,  it 
is  a  great  step  in  advance.  With  this  well  in  hand, 
you  may  next  begin  on  the  written  number  work.  The 
movements  will  apply  there  just  as  well,  if  you  can  only 
induce  the  pupils  to  use  the  same  care.  After  this  take 
up  geography,  language,  etc. 


104  PENMANSHIP 

The  movement  drills  for  the  capital  letters  are  practi- 
cally the  same  as  those  already  given,  and  may  be  readily 
acquired  by  any  pupil  after  the  second  year  in  school. 
Full  explanations  and  directions  for  developing  and 
applying  these  movements  will  be  found  in  the  exercise 
books  of  the  Wells  Natural  Movement  system,  which 
is  based  upon  the  principles  here  laid  down,  and  which, 
as  Superintendent  Phillips  of  Scranton  says,  "  has 
made  in  penmanship  not  a  reform  but  a  revolution. " 
THE  MONITOR,  OR  PUPIL-TEACHER  PLAN 

From  the  beginning  it  will  be  found  an  excellent 
plan  to  encourage  the  pupils  to  assist  each  other.  At 
the  first  lesson  in  movement,  one  or  more  will  be  cer- 
tain to  make  it  correctly.  Aid  these  especially,  and  by 
the  third  or  fourth  lesson  you  should  have  at  least 
half  a  dozen  who  understand  and  can  do  it  creditably. 
Select  the  most  expert  of  these  and  set  them  to  teach 
what  they  know  to  others.  Teaching  will  soon  perfect 
their  own  knowledge  of  the  movement,  and  you  will 
find  the  number  of  experts  rapidly  increasing.  Keep 
this  up  until  not  less  than  75  per  cent,  of  your  pupils 
are  able  to  do  it  correctly.  Pursue  the  same  course 
with  all  the  movements,  and  with  the  written  exercises 
which  follow.  In  any  event  a  pupil  must  teach  him- 
self to  write.  The  chief  work  of  a  teacher,  therefore, 
is  to  make  the  conditions  such  that  this  result  may  be 
accomplished.  But  do  not  forget  that  the  main  part 
of  this  self -teaching  is  to  be  done  on  the  lesson-getting 
and  lesson-record.  The  writing  lesson  proper  is  de- 
signed simply  to  prepare  him  to  do  this  more  important 
part  of  the  work.  When  you  have  taught  a  pupil  to 
make  the  movements  as  outlined  in  these  lessons,  and 


FINAL    SUGGESTION'S  105 

then  have  shown  him  how  to  apply  them  in  writing, 
making  him  believe  that  it  is  possible  to  write  with 
the  arm  instead  of  with  the  fingers,  there  remains  but 
one  thing  more  and  that  is  to  make  him  desire  to  do 
his  writing  in  this  way.  It  has  been  done  in  thousands 
of  instances.  It  can  be  done  with  90  per  cent,  of  all 
pupils. 

FINAL  SUGGESTIONS 

In  beginning  to  teach  movement,  make  that  your 
sole  business.  Do  not  attempt  an  application  until  you 
are  sure  you  have  something  to  apply.  Allow  the 
pupils  in  their  other  work  to  hold  their  hands  and  pens 
as  they  are  accustomed  to.  Let  them  write  as  they 
please.  The  movement  instruction  must  be  given  and 
the  habit  of  arm  movement  built  up  as  a  thing  apart 
from  the  old  writing  habit.  Do  not  mix  the  two 
together.  The  pupil  will  have  strong  habits  of  finger 
movement,  strong  habits  of  wrong  position.  These 
can  be  overcome  only  gradually.  But  as  the  arm  is 
stronger  than  the  fingers,  so  will  this  habit  of  arm 
movement,  if  persisted  in,  become  stronger,  and  in  due 
time  supplant  all  others. 

With  young  pupils  short  periods  of  practice  on  the 
movement  exercises  are  better  than  long.  This  is 
especially  true  when  practising  without  the  pen.  If 
required  to  practise  five  or  six  times  a  day  one  minute 
at  a  time,  better  results  will  follow.  Frequent  repeti- 
tions will  more  quickly  establish  the  desired  habit. 
Faith  is  an  essential  element  in  this  work.  And  not 
only  must  you  believe,  but  you  must  establish  in  each 
pupil  the  same  belief.  Talk  to  them  constantly  about 
the  importance  of  trying  to  do  all  writing  with  the 


106  PENMANSHIP 

arm.  Encourage  them  in  every  possible  way  to  dem- 
onstrate the  value  of  this  theory.  It  does  not  matter 
whether  the  one  who  tries  this  writes  better  or  worse 
at  first.  The  main  thing  is  to  induce  all  to  use  the  arm 
for  writing ;  and  the  direct  way  to  accomplish  this  is 
through  the  spacing  action.  Give  frequent  reviews  on 
the  movements  and  exercises.  Go  back  to  some  point 
where  the  majority  can  do  the  work  creditably,  and 
take  a  fresh  start.  Try  to  have  all  written  work  care- 
fully done,  whether  in  the  penmanship  class  or  on  the 
daily  lessons.  Kapid  writing  will  not  answer  until  the 
perfect  movement  has  prepared  the  way  for  it.  This 
method  is  universal  in  its  scope  and  application,  and 
while  you  will  be  expected  to  adhere  to  the  foundation 
principles  as  here  set  forth,  you  should  in  an  import- 
ant sense  make  the  work  your  own.  Individualize  your 
efforts.  Thoughtful  study  will  enable  you  to  find  many 
useful  methods,  which  although  different  from  any 
here  given  may  be  quite  as  valuable.  Seek  to  demon- 
strate by  investigation  that  you  are  absolutely  right, 
and  then  if  you  earnestly  desire  to  teach  penmanship 
successfully,  the  confidence  necessary  to  do  the  work 
fearlessly  will  not  be  lacking. 

More  detailed  instructions  will  be  found  on  the 
covers  of  the  copy  books  of  the  Wells  Natural  Move- 
ment Series  of  copybooks.  Where  the  detailed  direc- 
tions for  class  work  as  given  in  this  manual  differ  from 
those  given  on  the  covers  of  the  copy  book,  follow  the 
copy  book  instructions. 


FORM  STUDY,  DRAWING 
AND  COLOR 


The  purpose  of  education  in  Form  Study,  Drawing 
and  Color  is  three-fold — practical,  educational  and 
aesthetic.  By  following  out  this  three-fold  purpose, 
provision  is  made  for  mental  and  spiritual,  as  well  as 
industrial  growth,  and  the  work  becomes  worthy  of  the 
broad  designation,  Art  Education. 

A  good  course  in  Art  Education  stands  for  certain 
well-defined  ends  in  the  education  of  children  : — 

The  recognition  of  the  child's  individuality,  and  of 
his  aesthetic  feelings,  his  natural  love  of  what  the 

the  beautiful.  course  stands 

The  recognition  of  Nature  as  a  part  of  the  child's 
environment  and  the  cultivation  of  his  power  of 
appreciating  and  expressing  the  spirit  and  the 
beauty  of  natural  objects. 

The  recognition  of  Industry  and  Art  as  parts  of  the 
child's  social  environment,  the  cultivation  of  his 
power  of  appreciating  the  beauty  and  significance 
of  Industrial  and  Art  work,  and  the  development 
of  his  creative  powers  along  Industrial  and  Art 
lines. 

The  method  employed  to  secure  these  ends  is  that  of 
appealing  to  the  interest  of  the  child  in 

Its  method. 

beautiful  objects,  encouraging  his  self -activ- 
ity, nourishing  his  mind  with  well-chosen  mental  food, 

(107) 


108  FORM  STUD?,  DRAWING  AHD  COLOR 

and  so  developing  his  powers  through  intelligently 
guided  exercise  that  he  may  be  constantly  growing  in 
mind  and  in  aesthetic  feeling  through  his  self-activity, 
in  observation,  thought,  and  manual  expression. 

The  work  of  this  Course  can  be  most  clearly  seen 
under  its  two  divisions  : — 
Itstwo  A  Course  for  Primary  Grades, 

divisions.  ^  Course  for  Intermediate  and  Grammar 
Grades. 

I.     A  COURSE  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Form  Study  and  Drawing 

The  foundation  work  of  these  grades  is  Form  Study 
Form  study  fr°m  objects.  The  purpose  of  this  Form 
tfoVo^pri*"  Study  is  to  build  up  in  the  child's  mind  clear 
mary  work.  an(j  correct  concepts  of  form  as  a  basis  for 
thinking  and  doing.  To  this  end  the  Form  Study 
should  be  made  individual,  the  pupil  exercising  both 
touch  and  sight  in  his  observations. 

The  forms  studied  by  the  child  should  be  presented 
to  him  in  such  a  manner  that  he  may  grasp 

Develop-  * 

mentofidea    the  idea  of  types  of  form,  discovering  such 
types,  for  himself,  through  observation  and 
comparison  of  the  common  objects  provided  for  such 
study.  .       4 

The  study  of  type  forms  should  be  so  conducted  as 
to:— 

a.  Help  the  pupil  to  classify  the  miscellaneous  forms 
which  he  already  knows,  by  leading  him  to  refer  these 
forms  to  the  types  which  he  has  found  to  represent 
them  as  ideals. 

b.  Help  develop  the  pupiPs  imagination  along  healthy 


FIKST  TWO   TEAKS  109 

and  desirable  lines,  by  leading  him  to  see  in  each  type 
the  suggestion  of  natural  and  manufactured  objects  not 
present  before  his  eyes. 

The  types  thus  studied  should  be  presented  in  the 
natural  sequence  proven  by  Kindergarten  order  of 
experience  to  be  best  adapted  to  the  devel- 
oping  comprehension  of  the  child's  mind. 
Spherical  and  nearly  spherical  objects  first  ten- 
lead  the  child  to  the  idea  of  the  sphere ;  then,  following 
the  logical  form-sequence  of  Frcebel,  cubic  and  nearly 
cubic  objects  lead  him  to  the  idea  of  the  cube,  the  form 
showing  at  once  the  greatest  resemblance  to,  and  the 
greatest  difference  from,  the  sphere,  each  idea  being 
strengthened  by  the  mutual  contrast.  Still  following 
the  Kindergarten  sequence,  cylindric  and  nearly  cylin- 
dric  objects  next  lead  to  the  idea  of  the  cylindric  type, 
which  is  the  mediation  between  the  sphere  and  the 
cube.  Other  forms  should  follow  these  in  course,  each 
new  form  being  studied  in  the  light  of  all  the  preced- 
ing study,  that  the  mental  process  may  be  that  of 
sequential  advancement  from  the  known  to  the  unknown. 

FIRST  Two  YEARS 
1.  To  BE  STUDIED. 

(a)  Type  solids  for  the  first  year  : 
Sphere,  cube,  cylinder. 

Hemisphere,  square  prism,  right-angled  triangu- 
lar prism. 
Type  solids  for  the  second  year  : 

Ellipsoid,  ovoid,  equilateral  triangular  prism, 
cone,  square  pyramid,  vase  form. 

(b)  Nature-forms  and  common  objects  : 

Objects  resembling  these  type  solids, 


110  FORM  STUDY,  DRAWIKG  AND  COLOR 

(c)  Pictures  in  which  objects  resembling  these  types 
may  be  found. 

2.  Observation. 
(a)  Of  form  : 

In  nature  and  common  things. 
In  type  solids. 
(£)  Of  color  ; 

In  nature  and  common  things. 
In  type  colors. 

3.  Expression. 

(a)  By  modelling  in  clay. 

(b)  By  laying  color  tablets. 

(c)  By  paper  folding,  cutting,  and  making. 

(d)  By  stick  laying. 

(e)  By  oral  and  written  language. 
(/)  By  drawing  with  chalk  and  pencil. 

4.  Time. 

Five  fifteen-minute  lessons  a  week. 

The  study  of  Form  should  be  in  every  case  so  guided 
as  to  take  cognizance,  first  of  wholes,  and  afterwards  of 
parts.  Each  solid  should  be  regarded  first  as  a  com- 
plete unit ;  next  as  to  its  surface,  and  the  parts  (faces) 
which  may  make  up  that  surface  ;  next  as  to  edges,  their 
direction  and  relationship,  and  their  junction  at  corners. 

It  is  not  held  desirable  to  present  many  sections  of 
type  solids  as  themselves  typical.  This 
phase  of  Form  Study  is  too  analytical  for 
primary  work,  the  variations  obtainable  by  section  are 
too  numerous  for  practical  class-room  study  in  these 
grades,  and  they  offer  as  a  rule  comparatively  few  sug- 
gestions of  familiar  objects  for  individual  study  in  the 
child's  environment,  The  hemisphere  and  the  right- 


"   FIKST  TWO   TEARS  111 

angled  triangular  prism,  being  the  simplest,  and  to  the 
child,  the  most  suggestive  of  such  possible  sections, 
are  explicitly  presented,  all  others  being  left  for  inci- 
dental presentation  and  study  in  connection  with  the 
wholes  from  which  they  are  derived. 

The  ideas  of  Form  obtained  through  this  study  are 
expressed  in  several  different  ways,  as  stated 

1  rrn  »  •  tit     Expression 

above.  These  means  of  expression  should  of  ideas  of 
be  cultivated,  not  for  the  production  of  re- 
sults of  technical  value  in  themselves,  but  chiefly  as 
means  of  promoting  the  mental  and  spiritual  develop- 
ment of  the  child,  by  enlarging  and  strengthening  his 
conceptions  of  Form,  developing  his  sense  of  beauty, 
his  imagination,  and  his  creative  powers  ;  and,  second- 
arily, as  means  by  which  the  teacher  is  enabled  to  see 
the  degree  of  progress  he  is  making  in  his  general  de- 
velopment. The  method  advised  for  such  exercises  is 
largely  that  of  free  self-activity  on  the  part  of  the  chil- 
dren, with  only  so  much  direction  and  guidance  by  the 
teacher  as  are  necessary  to  secure  goo&general  habits  of 
work. 

Of    the  various    modes    of    self-expression  already 
named,  Language  is  applicable  to  the  Form 
Study  at  its  every  stage.     Modelling  is  prac-    modes  of 
tised  in  connection  with  the  study  of  types     xpre 
and  kindred  forms  as  wholes,  and  also  in  connection 
with  the    study  of  sectional  parts  of  those  wholes. 
Making  is  practised  in  connection  with  the  study  of 
forms  as  wholes,  and  also  in  connection  with  the  study 
of  their  parts  (surfaces  and  faces).     Tablet-laying  is 
practised  in  connection  with  the  study  of  parts  (faces), 
as  well  as  with  the  study  of  certain  facts  about  the 


112  FORM  STUDY,  DRAWING  AND  COLOR 

wholes  (views),  and  also  in  connection  with  the  study 
of  objects  and  of  pleasing  decorative  arrangements. 
Stick-laying  is  practised  in  connection  with  the  study 
of  a  form  as  to  its  parts  (faces,  edges,  and  corners),  and 
also  in  connection  with  the  study  of  objects  and  of 
pleasing  decorative  arrangements.  Paper-folding  and 
cutting  are  practised  in  connection  with  the  study  of  a 
form  as  to  its  parts  (faces,  edges,  and  corners),  and 
also  in  connection  with  the  study  of  pleasing  decorative 
arrangements.  Freehand  Drawing  is  practised  con- 
tinually in  connection  with  all  the  other  means  of  ex- 
pression in  Form  Study,  as  the  most  ready  means  of 
expression. 

A  special  point  should  be  made  of  encouraging  free- 
hand drawing  from  objects  having  three  di- 

Freehand  .  3   „  .  J  &. 

Drawing  men&wns  as  well  as  from  geometric  figures, 
and  from  objects  having  only  two  dimensions. 
Experience  under  widely  varying  school  conditions 
proves  the  perfect  practicability  of  pupils'  drawing  the 
appearance  of  sofid  objects  in  various  positions,  even  in 
the  lowest  primary  grade,  if  such  drawing  is  not  ham- 
pered with  technical  requirements,  but  is  allowed  to  be 
the  free  expression  of  what  the  child  sees  and  desires 
to  express.  The  practical  reasons  for  beginning  such 
drawing  in  the  lowest  grades  are :  Additional  interest 
is  felt  by  the  child,  if  encouraged  to  draw  solid  objects. 
His  natural  power  of  seeing  things  just  as  they  appear 
is  strong  in  these  early  years  ;  but  unless  cultivated 
early,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  keep  the  work  in  this 
direction  distinct  from  the  analytical  study  of  faces, 
edges,  etc.,  this  power  of  seeing  things  as  they  appear 
becomes  confused  with  his  knowledge  of  facts,  and  u^ 


FIRST   TWO   YEARS  113 

biased  "  seeing  "  becomes  very  difficult.  In  the  latter 
case  the  child's  later  work  is  of  necessity  narrowed 
down  to  mere  technical  reproduction  (e.g.  perspective), 
thus  limiting  his  legitimate  enjoyment  of  the  work, 
and  reducing  his  practical  graphic  power  to  a  minimum. 
As  already  stated,  the  drawing  by  primary  grade 
pupils,  should  be  freehand.  This  is  chiefly 

xl  -,  ,  -,          Why  Free- 

because  the  primary  work  aims,  not  at  the  hand  Draw- 
production  of  technical  results,  but  at  the  mgonly- 
development  of  thought  and  of  the  power  of  readily 
expressing  thought  through  the  training  of  the  senses ; 
and  freehand  drawing,  on  account  of  its  reliance  ex- 
clusively on  the  thought  that  is  in  the  individual  mind, 
and  the  power  that  is  in  the  individual  hand,  is  best 
fitted  to  accomplish  this  purpose.  The  use,  at  this 
initial  stage  of  the  work,  of  measures  and  rulers  is  dis- 
couraged, as  tending  to  substitute  acquaintance  with 
tools  for  the  training  of  the  senses,  and  as  allowing  the 
mechanical  production  of  exact  results  to  eliminate 
that  element  of  increasing  self-mastery  which  should 
be  characteristic  of  the  work. 

Throughout  the  work  of  the  primary  grades  it  should 
be  a  distinct  aim  of  the  instruction  to  culti- 
vate the  imagination  along  desired  lines.  ItivJSe-^' 
Emphasis  is  laid  upon  this  point,  because  at 
this  stage  the  imagination  may  be  very  easily  awakened 
and  so  directed  as  to  become  a  most  valuable  element 
of  the  child's  character ;  while  if  left  to  die  out  or 
allowed  to  become  perverted,  the  whole  after-life  is 
poorer  and  the  child's  individuality  less  effective  in 
practical  life.  Opportunities  for  its  right  cultivation 
arc  found  in  connection  with  almost  every  line  of  this 
work,  including  Form  lessons,  exercises  in  Building, 


114  FORM  STUDY,  DRAWING  AND  COLOR 

Modelling,  Making,  Tablet  and  Stick-laying,  Paper- 
folding  and  cutting,  Drawing,  and  work  with  color 
materials. 

Memory  of  Form  should  be  cultivated  through  special 
Form  review  exercises,  in  which  previously  ac- 

Memory.  quired  form  concepts  are  recalled  by  new 
applications  rather  than  by  formal  drill,  the  aim  being 
to  bring  out  the  little  child's  memory  of  form  through 
his  interest  in  it. 

The  assthetic  element  should  be  present  throughout 
the  course,  and  there  should  be  a  distinct 

The 

.Esthetic        aim  to  awaken  and  develop  the  pupiFs  sense 

element.  •  •»  -,    ,  •*  • 

of  beauty,  and  to  encourage  his  expression 
of  that  growing  sense,  through  the  work  of  his  hands. 
This  may  be  accomplished  through  : 

1.  Providing  type  models  of  beautiful  proportions, 

for  study. 

2.  Emphasizing  the  selection  of  really  beautiful  ob- 

jects, natural  and  manufactured,  for  study. 

3.  Calling  the  pupils'  attention  in  various  ways  to 

the  beauty  of  these  models  and  objects. 

4.  Encouraging  the  pupil  to  notice  and  recall  the 

beauty  of  other  objects,  seen  elsewhere. 

5.  Encouraging  every  attempt  to  express  a  sense  of 

beauty  in  individual  work,  especially  in  his  ar- 
rangements of  tablets  and  sticks,  his  exercises  I'TL 
paper-folding  and  cutting,  and  in  all  his  drawing 
It  is  advised  that  the  Primary  grade  drawing  be  done 
The  use  of      <>n  blank  paper,   because  the   drawing  of 
Senary*    these  lowest  grades  is  cultivated  almost  en- 
tirely as  a  simple  means  of  self-expression. 
It  is  to  be  regarded  chiefly  as  merely  a  graphic  indict- 


GENERAL  WORK   OF  PRIMARY  GRADES  115 

tion  of  the  impressions  made  upon  the  child's  mind  by 
the  world  about  him.  So  regarded,  it  is  not  met  with 
technical  criticism.  The  pupil  is  led  to  grow  toward 
the  proper  standard  through  the  development  of  his 
own  powers. 

In  all  Primary  grade  drawing  pupils  should  be  en- 
couraged to  use  the  pencil    with  a  free, 

i  j    j.      j  -XT          £j.  Character 

broad  sweep,  and  to  draw  with  soft,  gray    of  line  in 
lines  rather  than  fine  and  wiry  black  lines. 
This  cultivates  the  style  of  work  which  can  most  readily 
be  adapted  to  the  varying  line-requirements  of  different 
kinds  of  drawing. 

Dictation  has  but  a  limited  place  in  this  Primary 
work.     Where  used   it  is  in  exercises  for    Dictation 
developing  certain  desirable  ways  and  habits    grades?8"1*' 
of  working,  not  for  the  sake  of   producing  technical 
results. 

THE  USE  OF  FORM  STUDY  AND  DRAWING  IN  THE 
GENERAL  WORK  OF  PRIMARY  GRADES 

The  Course  for  Primary  grades  closely  affiliates  the 
work  with  the  other  school  studies.     Thus, 

.       .  -r>   .  T  Affiliation 

for  instance,  Primary  Language  lessons  are    with  other 
practically  strengthened  by  the  Form  Study, 
in  that  the  latter  gives  the  children  clear  ideas  as  a 
basis  for  much  of  the  regular  language  practice  (e.g.  in 
the  use  of  terms  relating  to  form,  shape,  size,  propor- 
tion, color,  etc.),  while  the  practice  in  correct  language 
involved  in  the  Form  lessons  saves  time  for  the  other 
work  by  anticipating  a  part  of  its  own  purposes.     The 
regular  Language  work  is  especially  aided  by  those  ex- 


116  FORM  STUDY,  DRAWING  AND  COLOR 

ercises  in  Form  Study  which  involve  the  exercise  of  the 
pupil's  imagination.     In  a  similar  manner 

Language  the  Language  lessons  are  anticipated.  em- 
Lessons.  ,  .  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  , 

pnasized,    or    supplemented,    by    work    in 

Building,  Modelling,  Tablet  and  Stick-laying,  Drawing, 
and  other  modes  of  manual  expression.  The  Freehand 
Drawing  gives  the  child  freedom  and  growing  facility 
in  the  line  of  pencil  sketching,  and  this  sketching, 
though  necessarily  very  crude  in  point  of  technique,  is 
found  in  actual  experience  to  be  of  great  assistance  in 
Language  work,  as  supplementing  the  written  repro- 
duction of  stories. 

Primary  work  in  Number  is  strengthened  by  the 
Help  in  Form  Study,  in  that  the  latter  makes  the 
child  practically  familiar  with  certain 
standards  of  dimension  (the  form-models  being  one 
inch  in  diameter,  or  one  by  two  inches  in  certain  cases), 
and  with  many  different  combinations  of  numbers, 
concretely  illustrated  in  the  study  of  faces,  edges,  cor- 
ners, etc.  The  child  has  also  valuable  practice  in 
thinking  number,  and  the  practical  working  out  of 
number-ideas,  in  his  exercises  in  Tablet  and  Stick-lay- 
ing. His  work  in  Paper-folding  and  cutting  makes 
him  experimentally  familiar  with  the  idea  of  halves, 
thirds,  quarters,  etc.,  the  division  of  a  whole  into 
parts,  and  the  combination  of  parts  to  form  a  whole. 
His  crude  pencil  sketches  of  real  things  are  often  found 
by  experienced  teachers  to  be  a  help  in  impressing  ideas 
of  Number,  as,  e.g.,  when  he  is  allowed  to  "  make  np 
examples"  of  his  own,  illustrated  with  pictures  of  the 
objects  concerned. 


GENERAL  WORK  OF  PRIMARY  GRADES  117 

Primary  lessons  in  "  Place,"  or  Elementary  Geog- 
raphy, are  strengthened  by  the  work  in  '-piace» 
Form  Study,  in  that  the  various  exercises  Lessons- 
with  models,  tablets,  sticks,  and  paper  give  the  child 
clear  ideas  about  position,  location,  and  direction,  and 
accustom  him  both  to  understand  and  to  correctly  use 
terms  of  position,  location,  and  direction.  Again,  his 
developing  power  of  Freehand  Drawing,  whatever  its 
stage  may  be,  is  of  help  in  this  work,  as  it  enables  him 
to  sketch  with  approximate  success  the  natural  forms 
he  studies,  or  to  make  a  simple  diagram  of  class-rooms, 
school-yards,  etc. 

The  primary  school  instruction  in  Natural  Science  is, 
most  clearly  of  all,  related  to  the  work  of  Nature 
the  same  grades  in  Form  Study  and  Draw-  study- 
ing.  Since  Form  is  a  necessary  property  of  the  objects 
studied  in  Natural  Science  lessons,  all  the  regular  work 
in  Form  Study  may  be  regarded  as  directly  anticipating 
instruction  which  would  otherwise  have  to  be  given  in 
the  "Nature  Study  "  periods.  Again,  the  Form  Study 
and  the  Science  work  may  and  should  be  mutually 
helpful  as  means  of  cultivating  the  higher  nature 
through  exercise  of  the  sense  of  beauty.  The  element 
of  beauty  (though  not  always  given  due  recognition  in 
otherwise  excellent  scientific  instruction)  is  conspicuous 
in  most  of  the  natural  objects  selected  for  primary 
school  study ;  it  is  that  characteristic  in  them  which 
most  immediately  and  strongly  appeals  to  the  child 
himself.  The  aesthetic  training  received  by  him  in  his 
elementary  Art  Instruction  with  models  and  objects 
when  properly  interpreted  makes  him  still  more  appre- 
ciative of  the  beauty  of  things  studied  in  Science  les- 


118  FORM  STUDY,  DRAWING  AND  COLOR 

sons  ;  while,  reciprocally,  the  Science  Study  may  be  of 
great  benefit  to  the  Art  instruction  when  it  gives  the 
aesthetic  element  right  recognition. 

The  use  of  Freehand  Drawing  as  a  means  of  expres- 
sion in  Nature  Study  is  very  generally  recognized. 
Such  utilization  of  Drawing  in  primary  grades  is  made 
especially  practicable  by  encouragement  of  the  sketch- 
ing of  solid  objects  from  the  very  beginning  of  school 
life,  and  by  exclusive  use  of  the  free  hand.  The  ad- 
vantage of  this  freehand  work  is  especially  evident 
when  considered  in  connection  with  Nature  Study,  be- 
cause not  only  is  mechanical  drawing,  if  taught  in  pri- 
mary grades,  itself  valueless  for  Nature  Study,  but  its 
practice  in  primary  schools  is  also  proven  by  experience 
to  hamper  thought  and  retard  the  development  of 
power  to  sketch  freely  and  effectively. 

The  Manual  Training  practicable  for  primary  grades 
Manual  *s  giyen  through  the  regular  exercises  in 
Training.  porm  study,  Modelling,  Making,  Building, 
Tablet  and  Stick-laying,  Paper-folding  and  cutting, 
and  Freehand  Drawing,  which  constitute  a  thorough 
elementary  course  in  Manual  Training.  These  exer- 
cises are  entirely  consistent  with  the  requirements  of 
Manual  Training  in  higher  grades,  and  are  found  in 
actual  experience  to  prepare  pupils  broadly  and  prac- 
tically for  such  higher  work. 

AH  the  general  work  of  Primary  grades  is  strength- 
ened by  the  Form  Study  and  Drawing,  in  that  the 
Form  Study  and  Drawing  are  constantly  developing 
the  child  through  observation,  thought,  and  expression, 
and  are  constantly  relating  the  mental  power  gained  to 
other  lines  of  school  work.  The  pupil's  interest  ia. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS  119 

school  life  is  greatly  increased,  habits  of  observation 
are  cultivated,  and  a  love  of  neat,  orderly,  and  beauti- 
ful work  is  awakened,  tending  towards  a  higher  standard 
of  effort  in  every  direction. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 

As  many  teachers  have  not  had  an  opportunity  to 
prepare  themselves  in  this  work,  a  brief  out- 
line of  Form  Study  of  the  first  six  solids  is 
given  here  to  open  the  subject  to  them  for  self-study. 


Fig.  1 

In  the  illustration,  Fig.  1,  we  see  the  type  solids  of 
the  first  year  arranged  in  two  groups,  the  group  on  the 
left  containing  the  sphere,  cube  and  cylinder — that  on 
the  right,  the  hemisphere,  square  prism,  and  right- 
angled  triangular.  The  six  solids  will  furnish  sufficient 
material  for  illustrating  the  subject  here. 

1.     STUDY  OF  THE  SOLIDS  AS  WHOLES 
The  first  step  in  the  Methods  of  Study  is  to  take  the 
solids  as  a  whole,  in  accordance   with  the    Thesoiidsas 
well-known  educational    maxim,   first    the    awhole- 
whole,  then  the  parts.     The  study  of  a  solid  at  first 


120 


FORM  STUDY,  DRAWING  AKD  COLOR 


must  not,  therefore,  deal  with  the  details  of  surface, 
face,  edge,  and  corner,  but  must  consider  the  solid 
simply  as  a  whole. 

Study  "by  Touch 

Grasp  the  sphere  in  one  hand,  roll  it  between  the  two 
hands,  Fig.  2,  hold  the  sphere  with  the  fingers  of  one 
hand,  turn  it  with  the  fingers  of  the  other  hand,  Fig.  3. 


Fig.  2  Fig.  3 

Hold  the  sphere  tightly  in  one  hand,  grasp  the  cube 

with  the  other  hand,  Fig.    4.     What  impressions  are 

received  ? 

The  sphere  is  smooth  and  pleasant  to  hold,* 
The  cube  has  sharp  points  and  hurts  the  hands. 


Fig.  4  Fig.  5 

Grasp  the  cylinder  in  various  ways,  Fig.  5. 

The  cylinder  is  pleasant  to  hold  in  one  way — held  in 
another  way  it  cuts  the  hand. 

Move  the  fingers  over  the  solids  in  different  directions. 

The  sphere  feels  the  same  all  over — the  fingers  move 
easily  all  over  it. 

The  cube  feels  smooth  in  some  places-and  sharp  in 
others. 


STUDY  BY  TOUCH   AND   BY  SIGHT  121 

The  cylinder  feels  something  like  the  sphere  and 
something  like  the  cube. 

Study  by  Touch  and  ~by  Sight 

Put  the  models  on  the  desk  or  table — experiment  with 
each  separately  as  to  rest  or  motion.  . 

The  sphere  will  roll. 

The  sphere  will  stand. 

The  cube  will  not  roll ;  it  will  slide  and  will  stand. 

The  cylinder  will  roll,  it  will  slide  and  will  stand. 

The  sphere  will  roll  in  every  direction  and  however 
placed. 

The  cylinder  will  not  roll  when  it  is  upright ;  when 
it  is  lying  down,  it  will  roll,  but  not  in  all  directions 
like  the  sphere. 

Examine  each  model  as  to  dimensions — how  do  its 
different  dimensions  compare  with  each  other  ? 

In  the  sphere,  the  width  from  left  to  right,  the  width 
from  front  to  back,  and  the  height  are  equal. 

In  the  cube,  the  width  from  left  to  right,  the  width 
from  front  to  back,  and  the  height  are  equal. 

In  the  upright  cylinder,  the  width  from  left  to  right 
and  the  width  from  front  to  back  are  equal,  but  the 
height  is  greater  than  the  width. 

After  the  children  have  passed  the  kindergarten  age, 
it  is  desirable  to  introduce  new  features  and    For  older 
greater  variety.     The  sphere  and  cube  can-    children. 
not  be  changed  in   proportion  ;  but  the  cylinder  may 
vary  very  much  in  the  proportion  of  the  height  to  the 
other  two  dimensions.     By  using  a  cylinder  higher  than 
wide,  two  new  elements  are  introduced,  that  of  propor- 
tion and  that  of  greater  beauty  of  form.     The  cylinder 
in  which  the  height  varies  from  the  width  is  much  more 
beautiful  than  the  cylinder  in  which  these  dimensions 


122  FORM   STUDY,    DRAWING    AND   COLOR 

are  equal.  It  will  be  noticed  that  cylindric  objects  hav- 
ing the  three  dimensions  equal  are  very  rare  ;  but  that 
those  objects  in  which  the  height  is  greater  or  less  than 
the  width  are  very  frequent. 


Fig.  6 

In  considering  the  elements  of  proportion  in  the  cylin- 
der at  this  stage,  it  is  desirable  to  choose  a  proportion 
easily  appreciated.  Therefore,  the  cylinder  given  for 
primary  work  has  the  very  simplest  proportion,  that  of 
1  to  2. 

Build  up  the  sphere,  cube,  and  cylinder,  and  new  rev- 
elations will  be  made  concerning  them.  Try  the 
arrangements  illustrated  and  any  others  which  may 
occur  to  you.  What  do  you  learn  ? 


Fig.  7 
The  sphere  can  have  but  one  position. 


TOUCH,    SIGHT,    AND   ARRANGEMENT 


123 


The  cube  and  cylinder  can  have  several  positions. 
The  sphere  and  the   horizontal   cylinder  cannot  be 
used  as  foundations  in  building. 

Study  ~by  Arrangement 

Try  now  to  arrange  the  solids  in  rows  ;  seek  for  pleas- 
ing arrangement.  You  will  find  yourselves,  perhaps, 
working  for  an  orderly  and  symmetrical  arrangement, 
Pig.  8. 


Fig.  8 
Study  ly  Sight 

Hold  each  model  up  before  you,  Figs.  9  and  10  ; 
turn  it  in  any  way  you  please.  How  much  of  it  do 
you  see  ? 

The  sphere  cannot  be  held  so  that  more  than  half 
can  be  seen ;  neither  can  it  be  held  so  that  less  than 
half  is  visible. 


Fig.  9  Fig.  10 

The  cube  and  cylinder  cannot  be  held  so  that  more 
than  half  can  be  seen*;  but  they  can  be  held  so  that 
less  than  half  can  be  seen.  Figs.  11  and  1&. 

*  These  statements  need  a  little  modification  when  very  small  models 
are  used. 


124  FORM   STUDY,    DRAWIHG   AKD   COLOR 


Definitions. 


f  Fig.  12 

#,  3.     Study  as  to  Surface  and  Face 

Surface  in  its  geometric  signification  means  simply 
length  and  breadth  without  thickness.  But 
when  applied  to  objects,  it  is  used  differently. 

The  surface  is  the  whole  outside  of  a  thing.  A  face 
is  a  limited  part  of  a  surface. 

The  ordinary  and  general  classification  of  surfaces 
classification  an(^  ^aces  ^s  in^°  two  kinds,  plane  and  curved. 
of  surfaces.  Thjs  js  a  broad  classification;  but  for  the 
purposes  of  Form-study,  a  more  specific  classification  is 
necessary.  Take  the  sphere  in  your  hand  ;  turn  it  over, 
you  will  find  that  it  is  round  all  over.  If  you  apply  a 
rule  or  any  other  straight  edge  to  it,  the  rule  will  touch 
the  sphere  at  but  one  point.  And  moreover  this  sur- 
face or  face  is  continuous ;  turn  the  sphere  as  you  will, 
you  will  find  the  surface  unbroken  by  an  edge.  Such  a 
surface  or  face  is  called  round. 

Looking  over  your  solids  you  will  find  another  resem- 
Round  and  bling  the  sphere  in  part  but  having  two  faces  ; 
rounding.  one  cf  these  faces  is  round  in  character  as 
far  as  it  goes,  but  it  is  not  completely  round  and  is 
limited  by  an  edge.  Such  surfaces  or  faces,  being  in 
some  ways  like  a  sphere,  are  called  rounding.  A  rul«r 


SUKFACE   AND   FACE 


125 


applied  to  any  one  of  them  will  touch  at  but  one  point. 

Take  now  the  cylinder ; 
applying  the  ruler  to  its 
length,  you  find  that  the 
ruler  touches  the  cylin- 
der throughout  its  entire 
length.  Turn  the  ruler 
and  apply  it  across  the 
Fig.  13  same  face  and  it  touches  at 

but  one  point.  You  will  find  also  another  solid  among 
the  twelve  that  has  a  similar  face.  Such  faces,  that  are 
round  one  way  and  straight  one  way  are  called  curved 
faces. 

Take  the  cube ;  its  faces  are  all 
flat,  as  if  they  had  been  planed  off. 
Such  faces  are  called  plane  faces. 
Make  a  list  now  of  six  solids  classi- 
Fig.  14  fied  according  to  the  kind  of  faces, 

beginning  in  this  way  : 

Bound  face  ;  sphere. 

Rounding  face  ;  hemisphere,  ellipsoid,  ovoid. 


Fig.  15 

Now  study  the  objects  in  the  illustration,  Fig.  15, 
with  reference  to  the  kinds  of  faces.  Remember  that 
all  Form-study  should  be  carried  on  from  the  type- 
solids  to  its  application  in  objects. 


126  FORM   STUDY,    DRAWING   AND   COLOR 

4-     Study  as  to  Edges  and  Corners 

Make  a  list  of  the  six  solids  classified  according  to 
edges.  Find  all  the  solids  having  no  edges,  all  the 
solids  having  straight  edges,  all  the  solids  having  curved 
edges,  and  write  a  classified  list.  Bemember  that  in 
each  of  these  various  classified  lists,  every  one  of  the 
twelve  solids  must  be  included. 

The  classification  as   to  corners  is  exceedingly  easy. 
Find  the  solids,  like  those  in  the 
illustration,  Fig.  16,  and  place 
them  as  there  shown.     Consider 
the  two  models  together  as  one  ; 
study  all  the  corners.     Which  of 
'  the  corners  are  square  ?     Which 
of  the  corners  are  sharp,  that  is, 
sharper   than  a  square  corner  ? 
Fig.  16  Which  of  the  corners  are  blunt, 

that  is,  more  blunt  than  a  square  corner  ? 

A  Suggestive  Lesson 

The  object  of  this  first  study  of  the  solids  is  first  to 
gain  the  child's  recognition  of  these  types 
through  observing  them  in  connection  with 
similar  objects  with  which  he  is  already  somewhat 
familiar,  then  to  lead  him  to  discover  some  of  their 
more  striking  features,  and  finally  to  feel  their  beauty. 

At  this  stage  of  the  work,  no  attempt  should  be  made 
at  an  analytic  study  of  the  solids.  This  is  the  time  for 
simply  receiving  mental  impressions  of  concrete  form. 
Association  of  ideas  must  precede  an  analysis  of  parts. 

Child  nature  must  be  remembered  throughout.  The 
work  should  not  be  dry  and  technical  and  formal  but 


Object. 


OBSERVATION    AND    EXPRESSION 


127 


should   be   developed  in  a  winning,   sympathetic  way 
which  will  bring  delight  to  the  hearts  of  the  children. 

"  To  let  the  new  life  in,  we  know 
Desire  must  ope  the  portal." 


FIEST  WEEK.— FORM 

OBSERVATION — EXPRESSION 

Sphere,    Familiar   Objects.     Modelling.     Location 
Lesson  1 — Can  you  find  something  you  know  ?    Tell 
me  about  it  ? 


Several  familiar  oljects  resembling  the  sphere — such  as 
a  football,  a  globe,  marbles,  return  balls,  etc.,  on  the  table. 

These  objects  should  be  selected  with  especial  refer- 
ence to  the  child's  pleasure  or  to  their  beauty.  With 
the  objects  place  one  or  more  spheres ;  if  of  different 
sizes  it  will  be  better.  Have  the  children's  models 
ready  to  distribute  later  in  the  lesson. 

As  there  are  but  fifteen  minutes  for  this  lesson  the 


128  FORM   STUDY,    DRAWING   AKD   COLOR 

conversation  must  not  flag,  but  should  be  bright  and 
quick  throughout.  Let  children  come  up  to  the  table, 
two  or  more  at  a  time,  and  be  sure  that  those  at  the 
table  talk  so  that  they  can  be  heard  by  those  in  the 
seats.  Keep  the  interest  of  the  whole  class  as  active  as 
though  all  were  at  the  table. 

Encourage  the  children  to  talk  about  the  way  the  ob- 
jects are  used  in  their  play  or  the  way  in  which  they 
have  seen  others  use  such  things.  Let  the  children 
show  what  the  objects  can  be  made  to  do  by  playing 
with  them  and  let  them  observe  the  action.  Be  careful 
not  to  limit  the  conversation  to  the  group  at  the  table, 
but  let  individual  children  about  the  room  who  feel  that 
they  know  something  more  about  the  objects  come  for- 
ward to  the  table  or  stand  at  their  desks  and  add  their 
stories.  The  group  at  the  table  should  be  constantly 
changing  so  as  to  bring  as  many  children  forward  as 
possible,  to  take  part  in  the  observation. 

When  there  is  evidence  that  the  children  are  thinking 
of  the  general  form  of  the  objects  (round),  lead  the 
children  to  tell  which  object  they  like  best  and  observe 
whether  it  is  the  familiar  toy  used  in  their  games  or  the 
sphere.  Use  the  name  sphere  freely  when  it  is  neces- 
sary and  allow  the  children  to  do  so,  being  sure  that 
there  is  no  confusion  as  to  which  object  is  meant. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  children  will  prefer  the  perfect 
sphere  (the  model),  for  the  appreciation  of  the  pure 
type  leads  to  a  love  of  the  ideally  beautiful.  The 
teacher  must  be  careful,  however,  about  showing  prefer- 
ence, for  the  choice  of  the  child  should  be  made  with  a 
free  spirit, — should  be  expressive  of  his  own  feeling. 

Try  to  limit  the  above  work  to  ten  minutes.     The  re- 


OBSERVATION — EXPRESSION 

maining  time  can  be  spent  in  having  each  child  take  a 
sphere  from  the  basket  with  the  right  hand  and  place  it 
on  the  desk,  in  the  groove,  etc.,  and  in  collecting  the 
spheres. 

The  following  illustrative  lesson,  •  while  it  differs 
slightly  from  the  suggestions  given  above,  for  conduct- 
ing the  same  exercise,  will  serve  to  show  what  the  spirit 
of  the  exercise  should  be. 

Lesson  Developing  Sphere  from  Familiar  Objects — Type 
included  in  the  Collection 

Teacher — We  are  to  have  a  new  game  this  morning. 
See  how  many  things  we  have  to  play  with.  Fll  stand 
so  that  my  back  is  toward  the  table  and  you  must  let 
me  know  everything  there  is  on  it.  Will  you  be  sure  to 
tell  me  something  about  the  thing  you  mention  so  that 
I  may  know  just  which  one  it  is  when  I  turn  around 
afterward  to  look  ? 

Several  children — Yes,  Miss  Rich. 

Teacher — Thank  you.  Now  mention  just  one  thing 
and  tell  me  about  it. 

Annie — I  see  a  ball,  a  white  ball.     I  guess  it  is  rubber. 

John — There  is  a  big  ball  with  pictures  on  it. 

Teacher — Where  is  that  ? 

John — Right  in  the  middle  of  the  table. 

Teacher — Can  you  play  with  it  ? 

John — No,  it  is  fastened  to  some  iron  things  and  can 
only  turn  around. 

Teacher — Oh,  I  see  ;  you  mean  the  school  globe  that 
belongs  in  Mr.  Porter's  room.  Very  well,  go  on. 

Mary — I  see  a  base-ball ;  it  is  made  of  pieces  of  leather. 

Lizzie— I  see  a  kaby's  rattle  ;  it  has  a  round  part  and 
then  a  ta&dle. 


130  FORM   STUDY,    DRAWING   AND   COLOR 

Tom — Eight  side  of  the  thing  you  called  a  blobe. 

Teacher — I  did  not  speak  plainly  then,  it  is  globe—, 
try  again  to  say  the  word. 

Tom — Globe.     Side  the  globe  there  is  a  chestnut-burr. 

Teacher — Can  you  tell  me  something  about  the  burr, 
Jessie  ? 

Jessie — It's  awful  prickly. 

Teacher — Very  prickly  indeed.  Now  for  something 
else.* 

Bessie — I  see  a  round,  round  ball ;  it  looks  like  wood. 

Eleanor — There  is  an  orange  there,  too. 

Teacher — You  haven't  told  me  anything  about  it,  you 
know. 

Eleanor — It  is  yellow. 

Teacher — Now  the  next  one  see  something  for  me. 

Philip — I  see  some  marbles  ;  they  are  made  of  glass. 

Rex — One  marble  has  stripes  on  it. 

Teacher — Very  well.  Who  else  will  use  his  eyes  for 
me? 

Children — Everything  has  been  told  about. 

Teacher — Sure  enough.  Now  you  have  told  me 
something  about  each  one  ;  can  you  now  think  of  some 
one  thing  that  you  can  tell  me  about  all  of  them  ? 

Bessie — They  are  all  on  the  table. 

Alice — They  are  all  round. 

Mary — The  rattle  isn't  all  round  ;  it  has  a  handle.    , 

Joseph — But  part  of  it  is  round. 

*  It  will  be  observed  that  at  this  stage  no  formal  correction  of  the  child's 
expression  is  made.  A  child  is  easily  disconcerted  and  his  thought  directed 
from  the  main  point  by  being  called  upon  to  repeat  his  statement  so  as  to 
conform  to  the  teacher's  standard. 

He  soon  learns,  however,  to  detect  the  difference  in  the  modes  of  ex- 
pression, and  will  gradually  try  to  speak  as  does  the  teacher  whom  he  loves. 


OBSERVATION — EXPRESSION  131 

Theo. — The  orange  isn't  just  all  round;  it's  been 
jammed  on  one  side. 

Teacher — Who  will  come  and  find  the  very  roundest 
one  of  all  ? 

Eleanor — This  wooden  ball  is  the  roundest  one. 

Teacher — That  is  so.  This  ball  or  sphere  is  perfectly 
round. 

(Models  now  rapidly  distributed.} 

Teacher — Who  is  ready  now  to  tell  me  something  ? 

Susie — I  have  a  ball  or  sphere  and  it  is  the  roundest 
thing  there  is. 

A  '  dissatisfied  Dodd,  gloomily — 'Taint  any  rounder 
than  any  other  ball. 

Teacher — Very  true.  This  sphere  is  no  more  per- 
fectly round  than  any  other  sphere. 

Teacher — Let  us  play  the  spheres  are  round,  round 
sponges,  and  we  are  going  to  squeeze  the  water  out  of 
them.  (Children  follow  action  of  teacher.}  Be  careful 
or  we  shall  wet  our  desks. 

Teacher — Now  let  us  play  they  are  snow-balls  and  we 
will  make  them  up  round  and  hard  so  as  to  have  a  great 
snow-ball  match. 

Teacher — Now  what  would  you  like  to  play  they  are  ? 

Freddie — Fd  like  to  play  they  are  walnuts. 

Teacher — We  will.     And  what  shall  we  do  with  them  ? 

Freddie — We'll  crack  them  and  get  the  meat  out. 

Teacher — But  what  can  we  play  are  our  hammers  ? 

John — I  know  ;  our  pencils. 

Teacher — Surely.  Now  we'll  hold  them  on  our  desks, 
so,  and  be  careful  not  to  pound  our  thumbs  with  these 
heavy  hammers. 

Teacher — Now  let  us  play  they  are  plums,  oh,  so  ripe, 


132  FORM   STUDY,    DRAWING   AND   COLOR 

and  we  must  handle  them  so,  just  as  carefully,  and  we 
will  put  them  into  boxes  or  baskets  and  send  them  to 
the  sick  children  in  the  hospital. 

(This  collects  material.) 

The  limits  of  this  volume  will  not  permit  us  to  carry 
the  primary  work  further.  The  instruction  here  given 
is  in  accordance  with  the  methods  now  approved  by 
leading  educators.  Teachers  who  are  ready  to  carry  it 
further  will  find  it  fully  developed  in  the  manuals  of 
the  Prang  Educational  Company,  Boston. 

COLOE  IN  PEIMAEY  GEADES 

The  true  aim  and  purpose  of  color  instruction  can  be 
Aim  of  nothing  less  than  the  awakening,  through 

instruction.  cuitivated  sense  activity,  of  the  child's  higher 
spiritual  powers,  the  opening  up  of  new  avenues  of 
thought  and  enjoyment  through  enlarged  observation 
of  beauty  in  nature  and  in  art,  and  the  cultivation  of 
better  possibilities  of  usefulness  to  others  through  en- 
larged capabilities  of  expressing  thought  and  feeling  by 
the  use  of  color  materials.  The  object  of  such  instruc- 
tion is  thus  both  personal  culture  and  practical  useful- 
ness. The  wise  teacher  who  herself  has  eyes  open  to 
the  beauty  of  color,  and  who  recognizes  in  children, 
minds  and  soul  to  be  nurtured  as  well  as  bodies  to  be 
fed  and  clothed,  will  find  in  this  newly  introduced  study 
of  color  especially  rich  and  suggestive  opportunities  for 
reaching  the  child's  higher  nature  and  encouraging  its 
healthy  and  happy  growth. 

The  instruction  in  color  which  is  suggested  here  is 
based  on  certain  general  principles  which  are  considered 
fundamental.  These  are  : 


COLOR   IK   PRIMARY   GRADES  133 

I.  The  Ideal  Unit  of  Color. 

II.  Color  Instruction  according  to  the  Power  of  Color 

Perception  in  the  pupils. 

III.  Color  Sensation  before  Color  Names. 

IV.  Simple  Nomenclature. 

V.  Coordination  of  the  Study  of  Color  with  that  of 

Form. 

For  purposes  of  education  there  must  be  a  unit  of 
color  and  this  color  unit  must  be  the  em-  Unitof 
bodiment  of  all  pure  color.  The  solar  Color- 
spectrum  has  been  considered  the  embodiment  of  all 
color.  The  solar  spectrum  however  is  known  to  be  in- 
complete, as  it  lacks  a  series  of  hues  which  are  found  in 
nature  and  which  are  necessary  to  a  complete  color  unit. 
Nature  nowhere  gives  a  complete  color  unit.  It  is  neces- 
sary, therefore,  to  form  an  ideal  color  unit  and  this 
ideal  color  unit  is  here  presented  as  the  basis  of  color 
instruction. 

Instruction  in  color  must  be  based  not  on  scientific 
theory  alone,  but  also  on  the  physiological  Color 
effect  of  color  forces  on  the  retina.  It  seems  to  Perception, 
be  necessary,  therefore,  to  make  the  state  of  color  percep- 
tion in  the  child  the  starting  point  of  color  instruction. 
It  has  been  found  by  numerous  experiments  that  little 
children  do  not  perceive  the  darker  colors  as  well  as  the 
lighter,  brighter  colors  ;  but  the  color  sense  is  with 
them,  as  with  many  adults,  in  an  undeveloped  state ; 
and  that  some  colors  have  for  them  no  distinct  character 
as  colors.  Hence,  investigation  as  to  the  color  percep- 
tions of  the  pupils  becomes  an  important  factor  in  the 
course. 


134         FORM  STUDY,  DRAWING  AND  COLOR 

Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  impression  or  sen- 
sensation  sation  of  a  color  precede  its  name.  The 
before  name.  color  sensation  must  be  recognized  by  the 
teacher  as  something  distinct  from  the  color  name. 
Investigation  in  this  line  shows  that  children  may  as- 
sociate a  color  name  with  some  particular  color  object, 
and  yet  fail  to  recognize  the  same  color  sensation  in 
another  object ;  hence  it  is  necessary  to  study  the  sen- 
sation as  produced  by  various  objects  having  the  same 
color.  It  will  be  seen  that  what  the  child  needs  is  as- 
sociation with,  and  close  observation  of,  various  colored 
objects  to  awaken  his  color  perception. 

It  is  very  desirable  that  the  terms  used  in  any  subject 
should  be  simple  and  well  defined.     There 
has  been  a  degree  of  confusion  with  regard 
to  some  color  terms  incident  to  the  newness  of  the 
study.     The  more  necessary  terms,  with  their  signifi- 
cations according  to  the  best  accepted  usage  are  given 
here : 

Standards  are  the  colors  which  by  common  consent 
have  definite  and  permanent  value  as  accepted 
types. 

The  tone  of  color  in  any  given  scale  which  is  most 

typical  of  the  whole   scale  is  the  normal  tone. 

The  normal  is  pure  color  unmixed  with  white 

or  black. 
Hue  is  the  characteristic  of  a  color  that  distinguishes 

it  from  another  color  ;  as  red,  blue,  green,  blue 

violet,  etc. 
A  Tone  is  any  state  of  a  color  as  it  passes  from  light 

to  dark. 


COLOR  IN   PRIMARY  GRADES  135 

A  Tint  is  a  tone  of  a  color  lighter  than  the  normal 
tone  of  that  color  yet  retaining  the  same  hue. 
A  Shade  is  a  tone  of  color  darker  than  the  normal 
tone  of  that  color  yet  retaining  the  same  hue. 
A  Scale  of  color  is  the  orderly  progression  of  related 
tones  or  hues.  A  scale  according  to  tones  is 
from  light  to  dark  of  one  color  or  vice  versa.  A 
scale  according  to  hue  is  from  one  color  through 
related  color  to  a  color  differing  from  the  first : 
For  instance,  any  part  of  the  ideal  unit — from  red 
through  orange  and  yeflow  to  green,  from  yellow 
to  blue,  etc.  There  may  also  be  scales  of  hue 
and  tone  combined.  For  instance,  from  the 
lighter  tint  of  yellow  through  light  yellow 
orange,  normal  orange,  dark  red  orange,  to 
darker  red. 
Positive  color  is  decided  color.  The  normal  tones 

are  most  positive,  the  tints  less  so,  etc. 
Pure  color  is  a  term  used  for  physical  color  when 
free  from  admixture  with  white  light  or  in  re- 
lation to  pigment  color  when  free  from  admix- 
ture with  white  or  black — full  unbroken  color. 
Broken  color  is  color  slightly  dulled.     The  shades 

and  the  different  grays  are  broken  colors. 
In  early  education  the  essential  aim,  is  or  should  be 
to  make  the  child  acquainted  with  his  en-     Form  and 
vironrnent.     He  is  surrounded  with  objects,     color- 
of  which  the  chief  visible  characteristics  are  form  and 
color.     Through  form  and  color,  objects  become  appre- 
ciable to  the  mind.     Hence  through  the  study  of  color 
the  environment  of  the  child  is  made  more  and  more 
real  to  him. 


136  FORM   STUDY,    DRAWIKG   AKD   COLOR 

To  the  child  form  and  color  are  an  undivided  unit, 
and  the  idea  of  color  seems  to  come  to  the  child  as  in 
some  way  a  part  of  form,  and  the  form  of  objects  is 
brought  out  through  color. 

Color  instruction  and  form  instruction  should  then 
be  closely  allied  and  the  work  in  these  two  subjects 
should  be  parallel  and  should  be  so  arranged  that  the 
instruction  in  the  two  subjects  will  be  reciprocally 
helpful. 

If  the  use  of  color  is  to  be  treated  as  an  expression  of 
observation  co^or  ideas  ^  must  be  preceded  by  observa- 
and  expres-  tion  of  color.  Such  observation  must  pro- 

sion.  . 

ceed  in  regular  order  from  colors  easy  of 
apprehension  by  the  child  to  colors  more  difficult  of 
apprehension.  After  a  color  is  apprehended,  it  should 
be  expressed  as  a  means  of  completing  and  affirming 
the  apprehension.  Colored  papers  furnish  the  means  of 
color  expression,  which  is  at  present  the  most  practica- 
ble and  practical  in  the  school-room. 

In  schools  where  the  funds  are  sufficient  to  have  both 
Water  colored  paper  and  water  colors,  the  latter 

colors.  wju  be  found  a  valuable  medium  for  illus- 

trative work. 

The  children  enjoy  painting  very  much  and  will  ex- 
press their  thoughts  and  tell  their  stories  in  color  in  a 
very  interesting  manner. 

There  should  be,  however,  a  good  foundation  laid  by 
colored  ^ie  S^U^J  °f  the  color  tablets  and  colored 
papers.  papers  before  taking  up  the  paints,  as  colored 

papers  afford  good  standards  of  color  desirable  for  the 
cultivation  and  study  of  color  perceptions,  whereas 
water  colors  are  desirable  for  color  expression.  The 


COLOR   IK   PRIMARY   GRADES  137 

first  exercises  in  water  colors  should  consist  of  washing 
in  colors  and  their  tints  to  match  the  standard  colors  ; 
next  a  lesson  in  scaling  the  different  colors  according 
to  tone,  then  an  application  of  the  knowledge  and  skill 
gained  in  a  simple  design  :  after  which,  twigs  and 
leaves  may  be  studied  and  color  drawings  made.  From 
this  the  child  may  work  into  flowers  and  sprays,  fruits 
and  vegetables,  bees  and  butterflies, — in  fact  any  object 
he  wishes  to  represent. 

With  a  brush  full  of  clean  water,  obtain  the  full 
strength  of  color  from  the  cake  and  then  transfer  it  to 
the  spaces  in  the  cover  of  the  box,  as  to  a  palette.  Add 
color  or  water  as  strength  or  delicacy  of  tint  is  required. 
When  the  color  is  satisfactory  apply  it  with  the  side  of 
the  brush,  using  only  the  point  to  keep  the  edges  well 
defined.  Keep  the  brush  full  of  wet  color,  and  with 
paper  inclined,  work  gradually  downward,  carrying  the 
brush  across  from  left  to  right.  Surplus  color  can  be 
removed  if  taken  up  quickly  by  using  a  brush  nearly 
dry,  a  blotting  paper,  a  soft  cloth,  or  a  hollow  sponge. 

Do  not  leave  the  brushes  in  the  water,  or  put  them 
in  the  mouth.  When  ready  to  put  the  brush  away  wash 
it  thoroughly  in  clean  water  and  give  it  a  quick  shake  ; 
this  removes  the  water  while  bringing  the  brush  to  a 
point  and  preserves  its  shape. 

Every  school  should  have  color  tablets,  sheets  of  gray 
cardboard  to  be  "used  as  a  background  for 

,         .  Materials. 

arrangements,  and  scissors  as  a  permanent 
supply  for  color  instruction.     In  addition  there  should 
be  colored  paper  for  each  child.     The  study  of  pleasing 
arrangements  for  borders,  etc.  should  be  carried  on  to 
a  great  extent  by  means  of  colored  paper.     The  follow- 


138  FORM   STUDY,    DRAWIHG   AND   COLOR 

ing  course  in  color  study  is  suggested  for  the  first  two 
primary  years. 

FIRST  YEAR 

Normal. — The  six  leading  colors  ;  Bed,  Orange,  Yel- 
low, Green,  Blue  and  Violet. 
Gray  cardboard  to  be  used  as  background. 
First  Half. — Color  tablets. — Color  Choice. — Color 

relations. 

Eecognition  of  color. — Color  names. 
Study  of  ideal  color  unit. 
Study  of  individual  color. 

Second  Half. — Borders  and  rosettes  to  be  cut  from 
colored  paper  in  the  six  leading  colors  in  one 
tone,  mounted  on  a  very  light  gray  or  manilla 
paper. 

SECOND  YEAR 
Normal. — The  six  Leading  Colors,  and  two  tints  of 

each. 
First  Half. — Scales  of  the  six  Leading  Colors  in 

three  tones, — normal,  light  and  lighter. 
Figures  in  one  tone. 

Second  Half. — Borders  of  rosettes  in  two  tones  to 
be  cut  from  colored  paper  in  the  six  leading 
colors  and  tints. 

A  Suggestive  Lesson 

The  first  step  in  the  cultivation  of  the  color  sense  is  to 
learn  the  state  of  color  perception  through  a  series  of 
investigations.  The  aim  of  the  first  investigation  is  to 
find  out  which  colors  appeal  most  to  the  children,  and 
how  the  color  perception  grows  when  opportunity  is 
given  for  its  use.  For  this  purpose  the  child  is  to  be 


COLOR   IN   PRIMARY   GRADES  139 

allowed  in  the  exercises  given,  to  express  himself  freely, 
without  any  guidance  or  hint  whatever  as  to  the  colors 
to  be  used,  or  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  taken. 
One  of  the  main  points  in  this  lesson  is  to  utilize  the 
delight  that  children  have  in  the  bright-colored  tablets, 
in  leading  them  to  an  understanding  of  how  to  keep 
them  in  good  order. 

Give  to  each  child  a  box  of  colored  tablets.  Have  the 
gray  cardboards  ready  on  the  desk  and  show  the  children 
how  to  open  the  boxes  over  away  from  them  so  that  the 
tablets  will  lie  in  a  pile  on  the  mounting  board. 

Let  the  children  spread  out  the  tablets  so  that  they 
can  fully  enjoy  them,  but  have  it  done  with  such  care 
that  no  tablets  will  fall  on  the  floor  or  get  off  the  mount- 
ing board  on  the  desk.  Make  this  care  a  pleasure  and 
not  a  restraint. 

Ask  the  children  to  lay  all  the  tablets  of  this  shape  O 

(showing  it)  in  one  pile,  of  this  | |  in  another,  and  of 

^his  |  |  in  another.  Let  them  put  the  first  two 

piles  back  in  the  boxes,  thus  leaving  all  the  oblong 
color  unit  tablets  on  the  cardboard,  and  place  the  box 
on  the  farther  right-hand  corner  of  the  desk. 

Ask  each  child  to  select  the  color  he  likes  best  and 
place  it  under  the  box.  Thus  there  will  not  be  much 
opportunity  for  one  child  to  be  influenced  by  the  choice 
of  another.  Make  a  list  of  the  children's  names,  and 
make  a  record  of  the  choice  by  writing  after  each  child's 
name  the  abbreviation  of  the  color  name  ;  R.,  Red  ; 
R.  0.,  Red  Orange ;  0.,  Orange  ;  Y.  0.,  Yellow  Orange  ; 
Y.,  Yellow;  Y.  G.,  Yellow  Green;  G.,  Green;  B.  G., 
Blue  Green  ;  B.,  Blue  ;  B.  V.,  Blue  Violet ;  V.,  Violet ; 
K.  V.,  Red  Violet. 


140  FOfcM   STUDY,    DRAWING   AND  COLOR 

This  is  an  important  lesson,  as  it  will  show  what  the 
order  of  study  should  be  for  the  succeeding  lessons. 
The  needs  of  the  children  can  be  learned  only  through 
investigation. 

These  and  similar  investigations  are  being  made  by 
many  teachers,  under  the  direction  of  The  Prang  Nor- 
mal Art  Classes,  and  blanks  have  been  prepared  for 
recording  the  results  without  much  expenditure  of 
time.  Any  teacher  who  is  interested  in  making  these 
records  can  obtain  the  blanks  by  writing  to  The  Prang 
Normal  Art  Classes,  Washington  street,  Boston. 

COLOR  IN  INTERMEDIATE  AND  GRAMMAR  GRADES 

The  study  of  the  intermediate  colors  and  the  grays 
and  their  tints  and  shades  together  with  the  harmonious 
combination  of  colors  should  be  studied  in  these  grades. 
The  purpose  of  the  lessons  should  be  to  bring  to  the 
pupils  a  greater  power  of  color  perception,  hence  a 
greater  enjoyment  of  the  beauty  of  color.  The  study 
of  color  like  that  of  form  should  be  presented  in  its 
practical,  educational  and  aesthetic  aspects. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  carry  out  this  work  more 
in  detail  if  space  permitted.  In  connection  with  the 
study  of  types  of  color  in  colored  paper,  there  should 
be  a  constant  leading  to  the  beauty  of  color  in  nature  as 
well  as  in  art.  Suggestive  lines  of  poetry  (the  poet  sees 
color)  in  connection  with  the  study  add  to  the  interest 
and  delight  of  the  child.  Teachers  interested  will  find 
these  methods  continued  in  Suggestions  for  Instruction 
in  Color  in  the  Public  Schools  published  by  The  Prang 
Educational  Company. 


INTERMEDIATE   AND   GRAMMAR   GRADES  141 

II.  A  COURSE  FOE  INTEEMEDIATE  AND 
GKAMMAR  GRADES 

The  course  for  Intermediate  and  Grammar  Grades  is 
a  development  of  the  Course  for  Primary  Grades,  to 
meet  broader  educational  needs  and  wider  applications 
in  practical  life. 

There  is  this  distinction  between  the  work  laid  out 
for  Primary  pupils  and  that  for  older  pupils. 
The  main   emphasis  of  the  Primary   grade   between°n 


work  should  be  laid  on  the  development,  in 
the  mind  of  the  child,  of  certain  typical  £?adr 
form-concepts  derived  from  his  original  ob- 
servation of  form  in  the  material  things  by  which  he  is 
surrounded,  without  too  much  self  -consciousness  on  his 
part.  The  main  emphasis  in  the  Intermediate  and 
Grammar  grade  work  should  be  laid  upon  the  further 
development  of  the  child  through  his  conscious  effort 
in  utilizing  these  form-concepts  as  a  means  for  wider 
observation  in  nature  and  in  art,  and  also  as  thought 
basis  for  the  exercise  of  his  imagination  in  the  individual 
creation  of  industrial  or  artistic  products  of  an  educa- 
tional or  practical  character. 

The  work  laid  out  for  the  Intermediate  and  Grammar 
grades  should  be  so  planned  and  presented  as  to  develop 
in  the  pupil  :  — 

Habits  of  attention  and  observation,  leading  to  a 
wider  range  of  ideas,  and  a  better  appreciation  of 
beauty  in  Nature  and  Art. 

Increasing  power  of  self-command  in  thought,  with  a 


142  FORM  STUDY,    DRAWING   AND   COLOR 

steady  growth  of  the  creative  imagination  along 
the  general  lines  of  Industry  and  Art. 
In  order  to  facilitate  the  educational  purposes  above 
subject          named,  and  to  give  the  instruction  the  most 
Divisions.        direct  and  effective  bearing  on  practical  life, 
the  pupil's  study  of  form  and  drawing  in  the  Inter- 
mediate and  Grammar  grades  is  classified  under  three 
subject  divisions  — 

I.  Construction. 
II.  Representation. 
III.  Decoration. 

Construction. — This  subject  division  includes  the 
study  of  the  facts  of  form  in  their  relation  to  each  other, 
as  observed  in  types  and  in  common  objects  ;  the  pres- 
entation by  drawing  of  these  facts  so  arranged  as  to 
convey  definite  ideas  of  the  form,  size,  and  structure  of 
the  objects  in  their  reality,  the  making  of  objects  from 
drawings,  and  the  application  of  this  study  and  draw- 
ing in  elementary  Constructive  Design. 

The  subject  takes  its  name  from  the  fact  that  its 
principles  and  methods  find  their  fullest  development 
in  the  Constructive  Arts. 

The  leading  principles  and  methods  of  Construction 
are  brought  out  through  the  following  features  : 
Form  study  in  models  and  objects. 
Developments  of  Surface,  or  Pattern  making  from 

models  and  objects. 

View  Drawings  and  Working  drawings  (both  mak- 
ing and  reading)  from  models  and  objects. 
Conventions  of  Constructive  Drawing. 
Constructive  Design, 


INTERMEDIATE   AKD   GRAMMAR   GRADES 


143 


rti 

I  i  \ 
\  i  i 
I  i  \ 


VIEW 


Y///M// 

1 

''*.    ! 

14- 

l 

X 

/, 

$    i 

^ 

£      ; 

X 

JECTION  ON  Al 

SECTION  os  CD 
BOTTOM  VIEW 
BOTTOM  VIEW 

The  working-drawing  of  a  hollow  cylider  closed  at 
one  end  and  the  sectional  views  given  above  illustrate 
view-drawings,  working-drawings  and  conventions. 

Representation. — This  subject  division  includes  the 
study  of  the  appearance  of  form  in  objects  viewed  under 
various  conditions  and  in  various  relations ;  the  expres- 
sion by  drawing  of  ideas  derived  from  such  study,  and 
drawing  in  elementary  Pictorial  Composition,  or  Repre- 
sentative  Design. 

The  subject  takes  its  name  from  the  fact  that  its 
principles  and  methods  have  their  fullest  development 
in  the  pictorial,  or  Representative  Arts. 

The  principal  features  of  the  Representative  work  in 
the  Intermediate  and  Grammar  grades  are  : — 

Form  Study  :  leading  to  the  discovery  of  the  princi- 
ples of  perspective. 

Outline  Drawing  :  involving  the  use  of  certain  desir- 
able modes  of  rendering. 
Rapid  Sketching. 


144  FORM   STUDY,    DRAWING   AND   COLOR 

Drawing  in  Light  and  Shade. 

Study  of  Good  Examples  for  gaining  skill  in  render- 
ing. 

Pictorial  Use  of  Color. 
Representative  Design  :  (Pictorial  Composition). 


The  illustration  given  above  shows  some  of  the  per- 
spective principles  in  Representation,  as  foreshortening 
of  faces  and  edges,  convergence  of  lines,  &c. 

Decoration. — This  subject  division  includes  the  study 
of  beauty  in  geometric  forms,  in  historic  ornament,  and 
in  natural  forms  ;  the  expression  of  this  beauty  by 
Modelling,  Paper-cutting,  and  Drawing,  and  the  adapta- 
tion of  beautiful  geometric,  historic,  and  natural  forms 
to  purposes  of  Decorative  Design. 

The  subject  takes  its  name  from  the  fact  that  its 
principles  and  methods  have  their  fullest  development 
in  the  Decorative  Arts. 

The  principal  features  of  Decoration,  as  taught  in 
the  Intermediate  and  Grammar  grades  are  : — 

The  study  of  typical  forms  of  beauty  as  found  in 
Historic  Ornament. 

The  study  of  elementary  principles  of  Decoration  as 
presented  in  selections  from  Historic  Ornament, 


INTERMEDIATE   AND   GRAMMAR   GRADES  145 

The  study  of  beauty  in  natural  forms,  and  the  adap- 
tation of  natural  forms  to  purposes  of  decorative 
design. 

The  study  of  beauty  in  type  forms  and  in  geometric 
figures,  and  of  beauty  in  geometric  arrangement, 
and  their  relation  to  decorative  design. 

Decorative  Design.  The  creation  of  the  beautiful  in 
ornament,  by  the  pupil  himself,  through  the  use 
of  geometric,  historic,  and  natural  forms  in  ac- 
cordance with  decorative  principles  derived  from 
geometric  and  historic  ornament. 

Types  of  Beauty. — The  instruction  in  the  subject  of 
Decoration  (the  study  and  expression  of  Beauty  of  Form) 
includes  the  presentation  to  the  pupil  of  certain  ex- 
amples of  Beauty  found  in  the  Decorative  Art  of  differ- 
ent countries  and  different  ages,  which  through  their  use 
and  their  historic  association  are  regarded  as  types  in 
the  styles  of  art  to  which  they  belong. 

Special  pains  should  be  taken,  throughout  the  work 
of  pupils  in  Intermediate  and  Grammar  grades,  to  cul- 
tivate an  appreciation  of  the  types  of  beauty,  in  order 
that  the  aesthetic  sense  may  have  nourishment  as  the 
condition  of  growth. 

The  principal  historic  styles  of  ornament  from  which 
types  of  beauty  are  taken  for  individual  study  are  the 
Egyptian,  Greek,  Eoman,  Byzantine,  Saracenic,  and 
Gothic. 

The  illustration  on  next  page  shows  the  study  of 
natural  forms  and  the  adaptation  of  natural  forms  to 
purposes  of  decorative  design. 


146 


FORM   STUDY,    DRAWING   AND   COLOR 


The  methods  in  all  these  subjects  should  lead  to 
individual  study  and  individual  expression  for  only 
through  wisely-directed  self-activity  can  true  progress 
be  attained. 

It  will  be  found  that  the  Form-Study  and  Drawing  in 
each  of  the  three  subjects,  Construction,  Representation, 
Decoration  has  direct  application  in  Manual  Training 
and  in  Illustrative  work  in  other  studies. 

It  is  impossible  to  indicate  here  how  the  various 
features  of  Form-Study,  Drawing  and  color  in  the  inter- 
mediate and  grammar  grades  should  be  carried  out  in 
details.  Teachers  interested  to  make  a  study  of  these 
subjects  will  find  great  help  in  the  text  books  and 
Manuals  of  the  Prang  Educational  Company,  Boston. 


LANGUAGE 


We  are  not  of  those  who  wish  to  do  away  with  gram- 
mar ;  every  teacher  should  understand  it,  and    Grammar 
pupils  who  are  able  to  comprehend  and  as-    co^edtoo0t 
similate  it  should  be  encouraged  to  study  it.    early- 
But  a  majority  of  pupils  have  formed  a  distaste  for  it 
because  it  was  introduced  at  too  early  an  age.     Lessons 
in  Language  should  receive  attention  from  the  first ; 
but  they  should  be  free  from  all  definitions,  grammati- 
cal rules,   analysis  and  parsing ;  these  only  clog   the 
memory  and  signify  nothing  but  mere  notions  of  general 
terms. 

The  object  of  the  study  of  grammar  is  "  To  teach  the 
science  of  language,  and  the  art  of  correct   object  of 
expression."    The  study  of  our  text  books    grammar, 
on  grammar  does  not,  as  a  rule,  attain  these  results. 
Why  ?    Because  grammar,  proper,  is  a  study  of  only 
the  science  of  language.     Scientific  grammar  belongs  to 
the  advanced  course ;  before  the  age  of  twelve  years, 
pupils  should  study  only  the  art  of  expression. 

In  Language  the  duty  of  preparing  the  soil  and  plant- 
ing the  seed  is  with  the  primary  teacher. 
Only  correct  sentences  should  be  used  in  the    moreThtn 
presence  of  the  pupil ;  if  the  teacher  do  not    ] 
err  in  this  direction,   the  ear  becomes  accustomed  to 
correct  forms  of  expression,  and  the  child  will  uncon- 
sciously acquire  them.     This  does  not  come  from  class- 
ifying, conjugating,  and  declining.     Pupils  must  learn 

(147) 


148  LANGUAGE 

the  art  of  language,  and  through  the  art  come  up  to 
the  science. 

Language  is  a  growth.  It  cannot  be  stereotyped. 
Language  and  thought  have  reciprocal  influence.  Eight 
habits  of  language  produce  right  thinking,  and  vice 
versa.  The  language  of  a  person  is  a  test  and  evidence 
of  his  thoughts  and  mental  culture.  The  chief  cause 
of  alarm  is  on  account  of  the  woful  ignorance  of  Eng- 
lish and  the  faulty  use  of  our  mother  tongue  among 
nominally  intelligent  and  educated  people — even  among 
teachers,  who  of  all  persons  should  use  pure  language. 
The  teacher  is  responsible  for  the  language  of  his  pupils. 

We  acquire  language  through  imitation ;   the  pupil 
who  has  always  heard  good  language,  will 

Howgood  ,    ,          J  ,  .    &,.,., 

English  is  use  good  language;  his  ability  to  use  good 
language  does  not  depend  upon  his  knowledge 
of  grammar,  but  upon  his  having  heard  good  English, 
read  good  English,  and  practised  good  English.  With- 
out further  comment  upon  language  we  would  say  that 
whatever  else  may  be  omitted  in  teaching — no  teacher 
can  afford  to  dispense  with  the  language  exercise. 

"  I  had  rather  speak  five  words  with  iny  understanding,  that 
by  my  voice  I  might  teach  others  also,  than  a  thousand  words  in 
an  unknown  tongue." — I.  Cor.  xvi.  19. 

SUGGESTIVE  METHODS 
/.     Directions 

1.  Ask  the  children  to  tell  the  names  of  the  objects — 

a.  In  the  school-room,  the  yard,  the  house,  etc. 

b.  Made  of  wood,  iron,  gold,  wool,  cotton,  etc. 

0.  Manufactured  by  the  carpenter,  moulder,  etc. 


OBJECTS   AS   WHOLES  149 

2.  Ask  the  pupil  to  tell  the  names  of  the  parts  of 
things. 

3.  To  name  some  of  the  quantities  of  things. 

4.  To  tell  the  uses  of  things. 

21.     Cautions 

1.  Insist  on  correct  articulation. 

2.  Form  correct  ideas ;  then  insist  on  the  intelligent 
use  of  the  terms. 

3.  Let  every  exercise  bear  upon   the  correct  USE  of 
language. 

///.     Results 

1.  A  wide  vocabulary. 

2.  Eeady  and  correct  use  of  words. 

3.  Increased  mental  power. 

OBJECTS  AS  WHOLES 

The  pupils  will  at  first  mention  the  names  of  things 
in  the  wildest  confusion.     The  teacher  lis-    Systemin 
tens  patiently  for  a  few  seconds;  then  kindly    namins- 
bids  them  to  begin  at  a  certain  part  of  the  room  and  to 
speak  one  at  a  time,  and  name  things  in  order. 

In  the  answers,  constant  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
pronunciation  of  words — distinct  and  correct 
articulation  being  one  of  the  first  requisites    pronuncia- 
of  correct  language.     Yet  this  should  not  be 
insisted  upon  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  it  irksome 
to  the  pupils.     The   child  can  attain  perfection  only 
gradually,  and  the  teacher  should  encourage  but  not 
drive.     Indeed,    the   child   needs   no   driving ;  he  will 
work  cheerfully  and  zealously  with  the  leader  who  has 
learned  the  art  of  working  with  the  child. 


150  LANGUAGE 

As  the  names  of  objects  are  given  by  the  children, 
incidental  ^ne  teacher  should  write  these  names  in  col- 
speiiing.  umns  on  the  board,  requiring  the  children  to 
spell  each  word  as  it  is  written,  assisting  or  correcting 
when  necessary. 

Let  the  children  say  something  about  each  object,  the 
simple  teacher  helping  them  to  determine  how  far 

statements.  the  terms  they  apply  are  appropriate.  The 
teacher  should  add  to  these  descriptions  the  names,  and 
lead  the  children  on  to  the  formation  of  simple  state- 
ments in  their  simplest  forms. 

In  the  written  exercise,  the  children  should  be  led  to 
Reproduction  observe  that  each  sentence  begins  with  a  cap- 
exercises,  ital  ietter  and  ends  with  a  period.  The 
teacher  will  use  judgment  in  the  assignment  of  the 
directions  in  each  lesson. 

The  directions  should  be  written  on  the  board  one  at 
a  time,  and  the  pupils  requested  to  follow  the  directions, 
and  read  the  statements  from  the  slate.  After  an  ex- 
ercise has  been  carefully  examined,  the  teacher  should 
require  the  class  to  reproduce  it. 

The  children  may  be  supplied  with  little  books  in 
which  to  write  out  these  lessons  at  home.  For  some 
time  they  should  not  be  required  to  originate  anything 
for  themselves,  but  merely  to  reproduce  that  which  has 
been  taught  in  school.  They  will  find  pleasure  in  doing 
that  which  they  can  do  well. 

When  the  objects  in  the  room  have  formed  the  sub- 
jects of  such  lessons,  those  in  the  play-ground,  the 
street,  or  in  the  fields,  may  be  resorted  to,  gradually 
extending  the  circle  to  more  remote  objects. 


i>ARTS   Otf   OBJECTS  151 

At  least  a  dozen  lessons  of  this  description  should  be 
given; 

PAK*  OF  OBJECTS 

After  giving  lessons  on  objects  as  a  whole  the  teacher 
will  ask  the  pupils  to  name  the  parts  of  objects,  and  the 
number  of  those  parts.  This  is  a  second  step. 

In  these  exercises,  the  teacher  should  be  careful  not  to  let 
the  children  call  that  a  part  which  is  merely  a  property  or  an 
accident.  A  part  of  a  material  object  is  a  portion  of  it ;  if  the 
part  is  removed,  the  object  will  be  diminished  in  size  and  weight. 
It  is  improper,  then,  to  consider  as  parts  the  lines  and  surfaces  of 
objects. 

The  exercises  on  the  parts  of  objects  should  be  varied 
in  many  ways,  so  as  to  arouse  and  maintain  a  lively  in- 
terest in  the  pupils. 

For  example — the  parts  of  a  pin  are  the  head,  shaft, 
and  point ;  of  a  chair,  leys,  rounds,  seat,  and  ~back. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  in  language  is  to  obtain 
ideas.     The  second  is  the  proper  expression    The  two 
of  the  ideas  when  obtained.  steps* 

To  acquire  ideas,  it  is  necessary  to  cultivate  habits  of 
observation  ;  to  use  the  eyes  in  noticing  not  observation 
only  entire  objects,  but  also  their  different  comes  first, 
parts  ;  to  consider  their  qualities,  uses,  operations  and 
effects,  together  with  their  relations  to  other  things. 
The  mind  employed  in  such  processes  acquires  material 
for  its  own  operations,  and  develops  ideas  and  th6*ughts 
as  it  were  spontaneously. 

For  this  exercise  in  language  it  is  proposed  that  the 
children  enumerate  the  parts  of  some  visible  object, 
something  as  follows  : 


153 


LANGUAGE 

A  House 


Its  parts  are  : 

stone, 

sills, 

plates, 

ceilings, 

mortar, 

posts, 

rafters, 

floors,  etc. 

joints, 

doors, 

shingles, 

beams, 

nails, 

chimneys, 

Glass 
Its  qualities  : 

It  is  hard,  inodorous 

solid,  colorless, 

smooth,  heavy, 

bright,  durable, 

transparent,  inflexible, 

brittle,  insoluble, 

cold,  dry,  •* 

tasteless,  fusible,  etc. 

Its  uses : 

For  windows  to  admit  the  light ; 
For  spectacles  to  assist  the  sight ; 

For  useful  vessels,   such  as  goblets,   pitchers,  bottles,  phials, 
lamps,  etc. 

Thus  far  we  have  endeavored  to  teach  the  pupils  the 
Qualities  power  of  rapid,  complete,  and  accurate  obser- 
of  objects.  vation,  and  to  prepare  them  for  concise,  com- 
plete, and  accurate  description.  The  teacher  in  order  to 
give  the  children  information  on  qualities  of  objects,  so 
that  they  may  form  correct  impressions,  should  subject 
the  object  to  more  or  less  complicated  experiments. 
The  names  of  some  of  these  qualities,  e.  g.,  compressi- 
bility, flexibility,  etc.,  must  be  fully  illustrated. 

This  exercise  will  furnish  opportunity  for  the  teacher 
to  invent  means  of  entertaining  children  while  instruct- 
ing them. 


LESSONS  OK  WORDS  153 

Interrogate  the  children  closely  upon  the  uses  of 
objects,  and  require  them  to  write  short  compositions 
about  objects,  to  tell  the  name,  parts,  qualities,  and  uses. 

The  teacher  must  have  a  plan  of  presenting  subjects. 
Experience  daily  proves  that  an  unprepared 
lesson,  or  what  may  be  termed  extempore  must  have  a 
teaching,  is  sure  to  be  diffuse  and  indifferent ; 
besides,  the  teacher  must  NEVER  PAIL  to  enter  the  class 
well  prepared,  not  only  in  regard  to  the  OBJECT  on 
which  he  intends  to  exercise  his  class,  but  upon  the 
ORDER  in  which  the  exercises  are  to  be  conducted,  and 
upon  the  manner  in  which  the  individual  pupils  are  to 
be  interrogated.  He  must  himself  have  clear  and  dis- 
tinct ideas  ;  must  observe  accurately  and  speak  carefully, 
concisely9  and  correctly. 

Without  these  requisites  the  teacher  will  fail  in  lan- 
guage. Let  him  study  carefully  Fitch's  admirable  lit- 
tle book  on  "The  Art  of  Questioning." 

WORDS  AS  OBJECTS  OF  OBSERVATION 
/.     Directions 

1.  Give  the  children  words  similar  in  pronunciation, 
but  different  in  spelling. 

2.  Ask  the  children — 

a.  To  find  the  words  in  the  spelling-book. 

b.  To  write  sentences  that  have  the  words  men- 
tioned in  them. 

c.  To  make  a  spelling-lesson  of  the  words  named. 

d.  To  write  statements,  using  the  words  named. 

e.  To  write  a  composition,  using  the  statements. 

//.     Cautions 
1.  Kequire  the  children  to  answer  in  full  statements. 


154  LANGUAGE 

2.  Give  constant  attention  to  distinct  articulation. 

3.  Correct  the  common  errors  in  pronunciation. 

4.  Make  the  exercise  pleasant  and  instructive. 

III.     Results 

1.  The  children  will  understand  the  meaning  of  words. 

2.  They  will  learn  correct,  simple  expression. 

3.  They  will  learn  how  to  write  and  to  spell. 

An  exact  copy  of  a  lesson  given  in  the  Primary  De- 
A  real  partment  of  the  State  Normal  school  in 

exercise.  Buffalo,  New  York,  is  here  appended. 

The  words  for  practice;  leech  and  beach.  List  of 
words,  given  by  the  pupils  : 

/.     Beech  II.     Beach 

1.  beech-tree,  1.  sand-beach, 

2.  beech-nut,  2.  shell-beach, 

3.  beech-leaf,  3.  pebbly-beach, 

4.  beech-wood,  4.  beach-timber, 

5.  beech-root,  5.  Rye  beach, 

6.  beech-twig,  6.  ocean-beach. 

7.  beech-bark, 

8.  beech-oil. 

SENTENCES  WRITTEN  BY  THE  PUPILS 
/    Beech  ;   a  tree 

1.  The  beech-trees  make  a  nice  shade  in  summer. 

2.  The  beech  has  a  smooth  green  bark. 

3.  The  squirrel  hides  beech-nuts  in  his  hole  for  winter. 

4.  Beech-wood  snaps  in  the  fire. 

//.     Beach  ;  a  sandy  shore 

1.  Year  before  last  we  all  went  to  Rye  beach  in  vaca- 
tion. 

2.  0,  see  the  pretty  pebbles  I  picked  up  on  the  beach  ! 


THREE  GEKTJTNE  COMPOSITIONS  1S5 

3.  What  fun  it  is  to  walk  barefoot  on  the  dry  warm 
sand,  down  on  the  'beach, 

THREE  OF  THEIR  COMPOSITIONS 

1.  A  beech-tree  is  a  very  large  forest  tree.     It  has  little  three- 
cornered  beech-nuts  on  it.     I  was  out  in  the  country  once  and  I 
saw  very  many  little  shells  of  the  beech-nuts  where  the  squirrels 
had  been.     The  beech- wood  snaps  when  you  put  it  into  the  fire, 
and  makes  a  very  hot  fire. 

2.  I  went  down  to  the  Beach  one  day  and  the  sand  was  all 
smooth.     I  was  on  the  Beach  of  Lake  Michigan  once  and  made 
little  houses  of  the  beach  pebbles  in  the  sand.     Rye  Beach  is 
where  the  people  go  to  bathe  in  the  summer. 

3.  A  squirrel  is  a  animal  that  eats  beech-nuts.     When  you  burn 
beech- wood  it  crackles  and  snaps  all  on  the  carpet  like  ashes. 
The  beech-tree  grows  to  be  very  large  and  when  it  is  very  large 
men  go  and  chop  them  into  wood  the  beech-nut  is  very  good  to 
eat  I  had  some  twice  and  they  were  good  sometimes  people  get 
oil  from  the  nuts  ;  beech  leaves  are  good  to  chew  they  have  a 
sour  taste  they  are  very  good  ;  beech-nuts  are  as  big  as  the  end  of 
the  finger  they  are  three-cornered  the  beech-nut  tree  grows  in 
Europe  and  america. 

The  last  was  written  by  the  youngest  girl  in  the  class, 
aged  eight.  All  are  printed  just  as  written. 

Children  from  eight  to  ten  years  of  age  will  do  this 
work,  if  the  teacher  directs  them.  . 

The  teacher  should  spell  and  pronounce  such  words, 
as  the  children  cannot,  and  also  tell  their 

,   .,,      ,  T«  Suggestions. 

exact  meanings  and  illustrate  them.     It  pos- 
sible, let  him  draw  a  picture  at  the  board, — an  indiffer- 
ent one  is  better  than  none. 

Indeed  the  off-hand  drawing  of  sketchy  pictures  by 
the  children  has  become  in  many  schools  a  prominent 
feature  of  composition-work.  Here  are  some  specimens 
of  actual  class-work  in  Putnam  school,  Syracuse,  N.Y., 


15(3 

taken  from  "English  Grammar  made  Practical'*,  an 
excellent  work  by  the  principal  of  that  school,  Mr. 
John  D.  Wilson. 

Maude  Kinsley. 

December  20,  1887. 
THE  PROCESS  BY  WHICH  THE  EARTH  is  WATERED 

Ct.u* 


The  sun  shines  upon  the  water  of  the  ocean  and  draws  up  in- 
visible vapor.  It  rises,  and  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the 
cold  upper  air  is  partially  condensed,  and  becomes  visible  clouds. 
These  clouds  are  carried  by  the  wind  over  the  land,  until  they 
reach  a  still  colder  layer  of  air,  or  a  colder  mountain  range,  when 
they  are  wholly  condensed,  and  fall  to  the  earth  as  rain,  snow,  or 
hail.  The  rivers  and  the  lakes  are  simply  the  ram,  finding  a  pas- 
sage to  the  ocean. 


Clara  K.  Harth,  age  15  years. 


June  5,  1888. 


LAND  AND  SEA  BREEZES 


When  the  sun  shines  on  the  land  and  water,  the  land  becomes 
heated  first  because  it  is  motionless.  The  air  over  the  land  be- 
comes lighter  and  rises  ;  and  the  cooler  air  from  the  water  rushes 
in  to  take  its  place,  forming  a  sea  breeze  during  the  day. 

When  the  sun  goes  down  the  land  imparts  its  heat  first ;  the 
warm  air  over  the  water  rises,  and  the  cooler  air  from  the  land 
rushes  in  to  take  its  place,  forming  a  land  breeze  at  night 


ILLUSTRATED   COMPOSITIONS 
?.  G.  Strong,  age  14  years. 

SPRINGS 


157 
Oct.  21,  1887. 


Springs  are  streams  of  water  issuing  from  the  ground. 

When  the  rain  strikes  the  earth  it  soaks  into  the  porous  rock 
until  it  strikes  impervious  rock  ;  then  it  rushes  along  the  imper- 
vious rock  until  it  can  go  no  farther  ;  then  it  bursts  up  through 
the  ground  and  we  call  it  a  spring. 


Marion  Kinsley,  age  15  years 

ALCOHOL 


Starch  under  certain  conditions  with  water  forms  grape  sugar. 
Grape  sugar,  dissolved  in  water,  in  the  presence  of  some  vegeta- 
ble substance  at  a  temperature  of  70°  to  100°,  separates  into  two 
parts :— alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  carbonic  acid  gas 


158  LANGUAGE 

rises  to  the  top  in  bubbles,  and  passes  off  in  a  gaseous  state  ;  the 
alcohol  stays  in  the  bottom.  This  process  is  called  fermentation. 
Put  any  fermented  liquor  in  a  closed  retort  with  a  tube  attached  ; 
apply  heat,  and  the  alcohol  turns  into  vapor,  and  passes  through 
the  tube  into  an  ice  box.  It  passes  through  coils,  and  is  con- 
densed by  the  cold,  and  forms  a  liquid,  which  passes  out  as 
alcohol.  This  process  is  called  distillation. 

Alcohol  is  not  a  food.  It  interferes  with  digestion,  and  injures 
the  blood.  It  also  deadens  the  nerves. 

All  erroneous  expressions  uttered  by  the  children 
should  be  immediately  corrected  and  the  proper  words 
flxed  upon  the  mind  by  repetition. 

In  the  daily  work  of  the  school-room,  all  definitions 
of  the  meaning  of  words,  and  all  descriptions  of  places, 
objects  or  events,  whether  given  by  the  teacher  to  the 
children,  or  elicited  from  them,  should  be  clothed  in 
simple  and  definite  language,  and  fixed  in  the  memory 
by  repetition. 

The  children  should  be  trained  to  give  complete 
answers  to  all  questions  put  to  them.  Experience 
teaches  that  nothing  more  tends  to  make  an  idea  clear 
to  the  mind,  and  to  render  it  a  permanent  possession, 
than  the  act  of  clothing  it  in  accurate  language. 

Monosyllabic  answers,  as  "yes"  and  "no",  should  be 
rejected,  except  when  they  express  all  that  can  be  said 
on  the  subject. 

The  value  of  such  instruction  has  not  been  sufficiently 
appreciated,  but  it  is  hoped  that  these  lessons  will  show 
how  suited  it  is  to  promote  mental  training. 
COMPARISON  OF  OBJECTS 
/.     Directions 

1.  Hold  an  object  before  the  children  and  ask  them 
to  say  something  about  it. 


COMPARISON   OF   OBJECTS  159 

2.  Place  objects  of  the  same  kind  in  their  hands,  and 
let  the  pupils  describe  them ;  first  in  oral,  second  in 
written  description. 

3.  Let  the  pupils  compare  objects,  and  tell  their  dif- 
ferences, as  paper  and  leather,  lead  and  iron,  wood  and 
stone,  etc. 

4.  Let  the  pupils  ascribe   different  qualities  to  one 
and  the  same  object. 

5.  Let  the  pupils  ascribe  the  same  quality  to  various 
objects. 

6.  Let  them  apply  many  descriptive  terms,  applicable 
to  various  objects. 

7.  Let  them  point   out  the  value  of  each  word  and 
state  what  it  adds  to  the  description. 

//.     Cautions 

1.  See  that  the  children  form  correct  ideas. 

2.  Correct  all  improper  expressions. 

3.  Fix  the  new  word  in  the  mind  by  frequent  reviews. 

4.  Assist  the  children  in  determining  the  suitability 
of  words,  correcting  when  necessary. 

5.  Encourage  the  children  to  reproduce  lessons  at 
home. 

///.     Aims 

1.  To  train  the  children  to  SEE. 

2.  To  teach  them  to  COMPARE. 

3.  To  train  them  to  DO. 

4.  To  train  them  to  TELL  what  they  see  and  do. 

In  the  oral  description  let  the  children  give  tne  gen- 
eral properties,  as  the  form  and  color  ;  then 

i  •  -i  T     j  i  •  L       Suggestions. 

the  parts,  properties  and  uses.     In  the  writ- 
ten description  require  the  work  to  be  expressed  neatly^ 


160  LANGUAGE 

giving  attention  to  spelling,  writing,  capital  letters  and 
punctuation. 

Let  the  teacher  write  the  name  of  some  familiar  ob- 
combination  Jec^  on  ^ne  board,  and  call  upon  the  chil- 
of  statements.  ^ren  £o  apply  to  it  various  qualities,  writing 
them  as  they  give  them.  It  may  be  necessary  to  assist 
the  children  in  determining  the  suitability  of  the  quali- 
ties, and  also  in  spelling  the  more  difficult  words. 

We  may  suppose  a  lesson  in  which  the  given  name 
is  "paper".  It  would  present  itself  in  such  a  form  as 
this : — 

The  paper  is  white, 

The  paper  is  thin, 

The  paper  is  smooth, 

The  paper  is  pliable,  etc. 

The  teacher  should  next  lead  the  children  to  notice 
that  the  word  "paper"  need  only  be  written  once,  and 
that  the  four  sentences  may  be  contracted  into  one. 
Then  the  teacher  directed  by  the  children  writes  : — 

Paper  is  white,  thin,  smooth,  and  pliable. 

The  children  then  read  this  over,  and  are  led  to  per- 
ceive the  necessity  of  commas  in  those  places  where  the 
words  "paper  is"  are  omitted,  and  also  the  use  of  the 
word  "  and  "  between  the  last  two  words  of  the  sentence. 
Cover  the  board  and  require  the  children  to  reproduce 
the  lesson. 

When  the  same  quality  is  attributed  to  many  objects, 
it  would  present  itself  in  such  a  form  as  this  : — 

Glass  is  brittle. 
Chalk  is  brittle. 
Coal  is  brittle. 

Glass,  chalk,  and  coal  are  brittle. 
Iron  is  hard. 


GENERAL  TERMS  161 

Flint  is  hard. 
Glass  is  hard. 

Iron,  flint,  and  glass  are  hard. 

The  children  should  be  led  to  notice  the  stops  as 
before,  and  the  change  of  the  word  "  is  "  to  "  are." 

Let  the  children  observe  that  each  sentence  begins 
with  a  capital  letter,  and  ends  with  a  period.  Examine 
each  slate,  and  require  the  children  to  reproduce  cor- 
rect copies. 

Be  sure  the  children  observe  that  words  used  in  a 
series  are  separated  by  a  comma. 

Kequire  the  children  to  write  many  sentences,  until 
this  fact  is  fixed  in  the  mind. 

A  LESSON  ON  GENERAL  TERMS 

1.  Ask  the  pupil  to  give  a  name  that  will  apply  to 
everything  which  they  can  perceive. 

2.  Ask  the  pupils — 

a.  To  classify  the  different  kinds  of  matter. 

b.  To  name  the  different  classes. 

c.  To  name  the  things  that  belong  to  the  indi- 
vidual classes. 

d.  To  observe  and  tell  what  animals  and  vegetables 
do. 

e.  To  notice  and  tell  what  animals  can  do  which 
the  vegetable  cannot  do. 

/.  To  observe  the  differences  between  the  food  of 

plants,  and  that  of  animals. 

g.  To  write  a  statement  using  the  words  named. 
h.  To  write  a  short  composition,  combining  the 

statements. 

3.  Cautions. 

a.  "  Never  assist  the  child  to  a  thing  that  it  can 


162  LANGUAGE 

do  itself  "  with  reasonable  effort. 

b.  Eemember  that  it  is  a  difficult  thing  to  form 
a  thought  and  express  it. 

4.  Kesults. 

a.  It  will  arouse  the  curiosity  of  the  pupils. 
p.  It  will  enlist  their  undivided  attention. 

c.  It  will  cause  them  to  observe  closely. 

d.  It  will  teach  them  the  importance  of  classifica- 
tion. 

The  aim  of  these  language  lessons  is  to  enlarge  the 
Aim  to  train  circ^e  of  •  the  pupils'  knowledge  respecting 
the  mind.  ^he  objects  brought  under  inquiry.  The 
true  aim  is  not  only  to  impart  knowledge  rightly,  and 
teach  the  elements  of  order,  but  to  train  the  poivers  of 
the  pupil.  This  is  its  dignity;  this  is  its  peculiar  dis- 
tinction. The  main  design  is  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  the  whole  being. 

In  order  to  teach  language  effectively  we  must  begin 
the  process,  as  nature  meant  w%  should,  by  furnishing 
the  children  with  the  elements  out  of  which  language  is 
created,  namely,  a  knowledge  of  material  things. 

The  teacher  should  place  upon  the  table  a  number  of 
articles  that  belong  to  the  mineral,  vege- 
table, and  animal  kingdoms.  He  should  ask 
the  children  to  examine  them  carefully,  and  to  tell  a 
name  that  will  apply  to  all  of  them.  (It  would  be  well 
to  ask  the  children  to  bring  different  things  from  their 
homes.) 

The  children  will  give  the  following  names  :  Articles, 
objects,  substances  ;  they  may  not  be  able  to  give  the 
term  that  you  wish,  which  is  "matter/'  Write  the 


PARTS   OF   SPEECH  163 

words  on  the  board,  and  tell  the  children  that  the  term 
MATTER  is  the  one  that  you  wish. 

After  the  children  become  familiar  with  this  term,  you 
may  ask  them  to  put  all  the  objects  of  the 

,  .     ,     .     .  rrM  .,,    ,  Suggestions. 

same  kind  into  groups.  They  will  learn 
to  classify  objects — an  important  lesson.  The  teacher 
will  then  ask  the  children  to  name  the  different  groups, 
viz  :  mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal.  (It  may  prove  a 
surprise  to  some  of  the  children,  that  they  belong  to  the 
animal  kingdom.) 

Many  lessons  may  be  given,  requiring  the  children 
to  name  things  that  belong  to  the  different  classes. 

The  teacher  should  require  the  children  to  bring  in 
long  lists  of  these-  names ;  an  exercise  of  this  nature 
will  arouse  their  emulation. 

Let  the  children  observe  that  the  animals  move  about, 
and  plants  are  stationary  ;  that  animals  and  plants  take 
food,  breathe,  grow,  and  die  ;  that  plants  feed  on  min- 
erals ;  and  animals  on  vegetables,  animals,  and  minerals. 

The  teacher  should  be  careful  about  assisting  the 
children  ;  it  may  be  well  to  let  a  question  remain  unan- 
swered for  a  day  or  so  and  see  if  the  pupils  cannot  find 
out  the  answer  by  a  few  hours'  study. 

THE  PARTS  or  SPEECH 

We  introduce  at  this  point  a  new  class  of  objects,  viz  : 
Words  in  regard  to  some  of  their  offices.  We  have 
examined  the  nature  and  functions  of  other  things  and 
have  made  use  of  the  facts  thus  obtained  as  material  for 
language  development.  Words,  as  will  be  seen,  can  be 
made  to  give  us  a  large  stock  of  working  material  to  be 
used  in  advancing  the  Art  of  Language. 


164  LANGUAGE 

The  Noun 

Teacher.— What  is  this  ? 

Pupil— A  bell. 

T.  Spell  the  word  bell. 

(Pupil  spells  the  word,  and  teacher  writes  it  on  the 
board.  Obtain  and  dispose  of,  similarly,  the  following  ; 
book,  pencil,  cup,  Henry,  Aurora.) 

T.  What  are  these  on  the  board  ? 

P.  They  are  words. 

T.  Pronounce  this  word  :  Henry. 

P.  Henry. 

T.  When  you  see  or  hear  this  word,  of  what  do  you 
think  ? 

P.  I  think  of  a  boy. 

T.  What  boy? 

P.  My  brother. 

T.  Why,  when  you  hear  this  word,  do  you  think  of 
him? 

P.  Because  that  is  his  name. 

T.  What  kind  of  a  word  is  it  ? 

P.  A  name  word. 

T.  Of  what  is  it  the  name  ? 

P.  It  is  the  name  of  a  person. 

T.  Of  what  is  the  word  cup  a  name  ? 

P.  The  name  of  a  thing. 

T.  Find  other  words  upon  the  board  that  are  the 
names  of  things.  (Pupils  find  pencil,  book,  bell.) 

T.  Of  what  do  you  think  when  you  speak  this  word  ? 
(referring  to  the  word  Aurora.) 

P.  Of  a  town. 

T.  Why  do  you  think  of  a  place  ? 

P.  Because  it  is  the  name  of  a  place. 


PARTS   OF   SPEECH  165 

T.  Find  another  word  and  tell  of  what  that  is  the 
name. 

P.  Wednesday  is  the  name  of  a  day. 

T.  What  is  each  of  these  words  ? 

P.  A  name. 

T.  Does  any  one  know  another  word  that  means  the 
same  as  name  ?  (No  hands  raised.) 

T.  You  may  call  these  words  nouns.      (Pupils  spell.) 

T.  What  is  a  noun  ? 

P.  A  name  is  a  noun. 

T.  Give  me  twelve  names.  (Pupils  give  names  and 
spell  them.) 

For  to-morrow  write  : 

1.  Ten  words  that  are  the  names  of  persons. 

2.  Ten  words  that  are  the  names  of  things. 

3.  Ten  words  that  are  the  names  of  places. 

The  Common  Noun 

T.  What  is  this  ?  (touching  one  of  the  boys.) 

P.  A  boy. 

T.  What  are  you  ?  (addressing  a  boy.) 

P.  A  boy.  (Address  several  boys  and  obtain  similar 
replies.) 

T.  By  what  name  may  all  of  you  be  called  ? 

P.  Boys. 

T.  A  boy  may  open  the  door.  (Several  boys^tart  to 
obey.) 

T.  Why  do  so  many  of  you  start  when  I  speak  ? 

P.  We  don't  know  which  one  you  mean. 

T.  Why  ? 

P.  Because  the  name  belongs  to  each  of  us. 

T.  What  name  belongs  to  each  of  you  ? 

P.  Boy. 


166  LANGUAGE 

jT.  What  have  you  learned  to  call  a  word  that  is  a  name  ? 

P.  A  noun. 

T.  Why  is  it  a  noun  ? 

P.  Because  it  is  a  name. 

T.  Because  the  name  applies  to  each  of  you  what 
kind  of  a  name  is  it  ? 

P.  A  common  name. 

T.  What  kind  of  a  noun  is  it  ? 

P.  A  common  noun. 

T.  What  is  a  common  noun  ? 

P.  A  common  name  is  a  common  noun. 

T.  But  when  is  a  name  common  ? 

P.  When  it  applies  to  each  one  of  the  same  kind  of 
objects. 

T.  What,  then,  is  a  common  noun  ? 

P.  A  name  that  applies  to  each  one  of  the  same  kind 
of  objects  is  a  common  noun. 

T.  Peter,  bring  me  five  things  that  have  a  common 
name.  What  are  these  called  ? 

P.  Books. 

T.  What  name  may  be  given  to  each  boy  and  girl  in 
this  school  ? 

P.  Pupil. 

T.  What  common  name  may  be  given  to  Miss , 

Miss ,  and  Miss ? 

P.  Teacher.     Lady.     Woman. 

T.  What  kind  of  nouns  are  pencil,  pupil,  teacher, 
lady,  boy,  girl  ? 

P.  Common  nouns. 

For  to-morrow  write  a  list  of  : 

1.  Twenty  common  nouns  that  are  names  of  ^articles 
of  furniture. 


t»ARTS   OF   SPEEOM  167 

2.  Twenty  common  nouns  that  are  names  of  tools. 

3.  Twenty  common  nouns  that  are  names  of  vegetables. 

4.  Twenty  common  nouns  that  are  names  of  minerals. 

The  Proper  Noun 

T.  Jane,  write  your  name  on  the  board.  (Pupil  does 
so.)  What  have  you  written  ? 

P.  I  have  written  my  name. 

T.  Why  do  you  say  "my  name"  ? 

P.  Because  it  belongs  to  me. 

T.  What  other  person  in  your  family  has  the  same 
name  ? 

P.  No  other  person  has  the  same  name. 

T.  Class  :  why  do  you  think  a  different  name  from 
any  other  in  her  family  was  given  ? 

P.  To  tell  her  from  the  others. 

T.  To  how  many  of  her  family  does  the  name  Jane 
belong  ? 

P.  It  belongs  to  one. 

T.  What  is  this  name  ? 

P.  This  name  is  a  noun. 

T.  What  is  a  noun  ?  * 

P.  A  name  is  a  noun. 

T.  Because  this  name  belongs  to  one  only,  what  kind 
of  a  noun  is  it  ? 

P.  It  is  a  particular  noun. 

T.  You  may  call  it  a  proper  noun.  What  is  a  proper 
noun  ? 

P.  A  particular  name  is  a  proper  noun. 

T.  To  how  many  does  a  proper  noun  belong  ? 

P.  It  belongs  to  one. 

T.  Give  a  name  that  is  common  to  those  three  things. 
(Pointing  to  a  pile  of  books.) 


168  LAHGtTAGE 

P.  Book. 

T.  Give  the  proper  name. 

P.  Monroe's  First  Keader,  Webster's  Dictionary, 
Thomson's  Arithmetic. 

T.  Open  your  readers  and  find  five  proper  nouns. 
(Pupils  do  so. )  With  what  kind  of  letter  is  each  begun  ? 

P.  With  a  capital  letter. 

T.  Find  a  proper  noun  that  does  not  begin  with  a 
capital  letter.  (Pupils  fail  to  find  one.) 

1.  Write  ten  proper  nouns  that  are  the  names  of  men. 

2.  Write  ten   proper  nouns  that  are  the  names  of 
women. 

3.  Write  ten  proper  nouns  that  are  the  names  of  places. 

4.  Write  ten  proper  nouns  that  are  the  names  of 
divisions  of  time. 

The  Possessive  Form  of  Nouns 

T.  What  is  this  ? 

P.  That  is  a  hat. 

T.  Whose  hat  is  it  ? 

P.  William's. 

T.  Make  a  statement  of  what  you  say. 

P.  That  is  William's  hat.  (Some  of  the  pupils  write 
this  statement  on  the  board  ;  the  others  write  it  on  their 
slates. ) 

'T.  What  is  the  word  William's  ? 

P.  A  noun. 

T.  What  kind  of  a  noun  ? 

P.  A  proper  noun. 

T.  For  what  is  it  used  in  the  sentence  ? 

P.  To  tell  whose  hat.     To  tell  who  owns  the  hat. 

T.  You  may  say  possesses,  instead  of  owns. 

P.  To  tell  who  possesses  the  hat. 


PARTS   OF   SPEECH  169 

T.  Speak  the  word  as  we  commonly  hear  it.  (Pupils 
do  so.) 

T.  Speak  the  word  as  it  is  here  used.     (Pupils  do  so.) 

[This  should  be  repeated,  with  this  and  other  nouns, 
until  the  pupils  perceive  clearly  and  can  state  the  dif- 
ference between  the  sounds  of  the  two  forms.] 

T.  Open  your  books  and  find  names  used  as  we  have 
used  the  name  William  in  this  sentence.  (Pupils  find 
many  names  and  pronounce  them.) 

T.  What  is  the  difference  in  the  sounds  of  these 
words,  and  the  same  words  as  they  are  commonly  called  ? 
(Pupils  state.) 

T.  What  do  you  find  in  the  printed  word  to  represent 
that  difference  ? 

P.  An  apostrophe  and  a  letter  s. 

T.  As  you  look  at  the  words  William  and  William's, 
what  difference  can  you  see  ? 

P.  One  has  more  letters  than  the  other. — A  differ- 
ence in  the  size  of  them. — A  difference  in  the  form  of 
them. 

T.  Because  William  is  the  way  we  commonly  use  the 
word,  what  form  may  we  call  it  ? 

P.  The  common  form. 

T.  What  shall  we  call  the  other  form  ?  (Pupils  do 
not  know.) 

T.  You  may  call  this  the  possessive  form  of  the  noun. 
(Pupils  spell  the  word.) 

1.  Write  ten  common  nouns  in  the  possessive  case. 

2.  Write  ten  proper  nouns  in  the  possessive  case. 

In  like  manner  develop  all  the  Parts  of  Speech,  as  the 
adjective,  pronoun,  verb,  etc.,  and  make  immediate  ap^ 


170  LANGUAGE 

plication  of  tlie  terms  developed.  This  will  lead  the 
pupils  pleasantly  into  the  Science  of  Language  so  that 
it  will  become  a  rational  study. 

The  Comma — Its  Use  in  a  Succession  of  Particulars 

T.  I  want  you  to  tell  by  writing  on  your  slates  five 
things  that  this  knife  has. 

(The  pupils  at  the  age  of  those  for  whom  these  les- 
sons are  intended  will,  almost  without  exception,  write 
five  sentences : 

This  knife  has  a  handle. 

This  knife  has  a  blade. 

This  knife  has  a  back. 

This  knife  has  a  spring. 

This  knife  has  rivets.) 

T.  How  many  sentences  have  you  written  ? 

P.  Five. 

T.  See  how  many  times  you  have  written  the  words 
this,  knife,  has,  and  a.  Can  you  not  shorten  the  work 
by  putting  all  you  have  to  say  in  one  sentence  ? 

(Pupils  write  : 

The  knife  has  a  handle  and  blade  and  back  and  spring, 
and  rivets.) 

T.  Listen  closely.  I  am  going  to  ask  you  another 
question.  What  is  the  use  of  the  words  handle,  blade, 
back,  spring,  and  rivets  ?  What  did  you  discover  ? 

P.  You  said  and  only  before  the  last  word. 

T.  Now  I  think  you  can  give  the  sentence  that  you 
have  been  writing,  and  have  it  just  right.  Who  will 
try  ?  (Hands  are  raised.) 

P.  The  knife  has  a  handle,  blade,  back,  spring,  and 
rivets. 


PARTS   01*  SPEECH  1?1 

T.  That  is  right.  All  repeat.  (Pupils  repeat,  and 
write  on  their  slates.) 

T.  There  is  a  question  unanswered.  Who  can  give 
it  ?  (Hands  are  raised.) 

P.  What  is  the  use  of  the  words  handle,  blade,  back, 
spring  and  rivets  ? 

T.  Eight.     Who  will  answer  it  ? 

P.  To  show  what  the  knife  has. 

T.  Because  they  are  all  used  for  that  purpose  what 
may  we  say  about  them  ? 

P.  They  are  used  in  the  same  way.  They  are  used 
alike. 

T.  Now  turn  to  your  books,  and  find  words  that  are 
used  alike,  and  see  how  they  are  written  ;  then  we  shall 
know  whether  our  work  is  right  or  not.  What  do  you 
discover  ? 

P.  There  is  a  comma  after  each  of  the  words  except 
the  last.  (Pupils  correct  the  work  on  their  slates. ) 

T.  You  say  these  words  are  used  in  the  same  way. 
How  hiany  words  in  this  sentence  are  used  in  the  same 
way  ? 

P.  Five.     Many.     Several. 

T.  Which  now  makes  the  best  answer  to  my  ques- 
tion— five,  many,  or  several  ? 

P.  Several. 

T.  I  think  so.  We  have  learned  something  about 
the  use  of  the  comma,  and  I  want  you  to  tell  me  what 
it  is. 

P.  When  several  words  are  used  in  the  same  way,  a 
comma  is  placed  after  each  except  the  last. 

(The  teacher  ought  now  to  suggest  many  kinds  of 
sentences  containing  successions  of  particulars,  and 


172  LANGUAGE 

have  them  all  written  and  carefully  criticised.    Drill  on 
this  lesson  should  continue  several  days.) 

THEMES  FOR  COMPOSITION 

/.  Directions 

1.  The  teacher  will  select  a  familiar  theme  and  ask 
suggestive  questions. 

2.  Write  the  correct  answers  on  the  board. 

Water 

a.  Where  does  the  water  come  from  ? 
1).  How  does  it  reach  the  clouds  ? 

c.  In  what  form  is  it  carried  ? 

d.  What  causes  it  to  fall  to  the  earth  ? 

e.  Is  rain  useful  ? 

/.  In  what  way  is  it  useful  ? 

A  Journey 

a.  The  starting  point. 
Z>.  Time  of  departure. 

c.  Mode  of  travel. 

d.  Destination. 

e.  Appearance  of  the  country. 
/.  Kind  of  trees,  flowers,  etc. 
g.  Return. 

CAUTION. — Enlarge  upon  the  idea  of  criticising  and 
correcting  by  the  pupils. 

MISCELLANEOUS  EXERCISES 
/.   Directions 

1.  Tell  or  read  a  short  story,  and  require  the  pupils 
to  reproduce  it. 

2.  Write  a  letter  to  a  wealthy  merchant  in  New  York 
city,  requesting  a  situation  as  salesman  in  his  store. 


THEMES   FOE   COMPOSITIONS  173 

3.  Write  an  advertisement  describing  a  lost  child. 

4.  Write  a  composition   on  each   of  the  following 
proverbs,  explaining  its  meaning,  and  showing  how  far 
it  is  true  : — 

a.  "  Fortune  favors  the  brave." 
I.  "All  is  well  that  ends  well." 

c.  "  Strike  while  the  iron  is  hot." 

d.  "  A  little  pot  is  soon  hot." 

e.  "  Out  of  sight,  out  of  mind." 

5.  Take  some  poem  of  several  stanzas,  and  write  your 
opinion  of  it. 

6.  Write  a  letter  to  the  New  York  Times,  giving  an 
account  of  a  railway  accident. 

7.  Write  an  allegory  comparing  tobacco  to  a  thief. 

Perhaps  as  easy  a  method  as  any  to  induce  the 
younger  class  of  pupils  to  make  their  first  Reproduction 
efforts  at  composition  is  to  read  or  relate  to  of  stories- 
them  a  short  but  interesting  story,  and  desire  them  to 
write  an  outline  of  it,  as  full  and  extended  as  they  can 
within  a  given  time.  In  such  an  exercise  the  thoughts 
are  already  furnished,  and  the  only  labor  of  the  pupil 
is  to  place  them  in  their  proper  connection  and  clothe 
them  with  good  language.  In  an  exercise  of  this  kind 
the  pupil  takes  one  of  his  first  lessons  in  generalization  ; 
he  learns  to  separate  and  classify  facts,  selecting  the 
most  important,  and  rejecting  those  of  little  conse- 
quence. An  excellent  series  of  blanks  for  this  purpose, 
with  illustrations  and  suggestions,  is  Edwards's  "  Graded 
Lessons  in  Language,"  in  six  numbers,  at  $1.00  a  dozen. 


174  LANGUAGE 

SUGGESTIVE  ABSTRACTS 
Abraham  Lincoln 

I.   His  Early  Life. 

a.  Birth. 

b.  Childhood. 

c.  Youth. 

d.  Manhood. 

e.  Difficulties. 

II.  His  After  Life. 

a.  Occupatioo. 

b.  Election  to  the  Presidency. 

c.  Administration. 

d.  Assassination. 

e.  Burial. 
III.   His  Character. 

a.  Simplicity. 

b.  Uprightness. 

The  Influence  of  Kind  Words 

I.   A  Kind  Word  costs  nothing,   yet  its  influence  may  last 
through  a  life  time. 

a.  Kind  words  at  home. 

b.  in  school. 

c.  to  friends. 

d.  to  our  inferiors. 

e.  to  strangers. 
/.  to  animals. 

II.   The  Influence  upon  the  Speaker. 

a.  They  gain  him  friends. 

b.  They  gain  him  a  reputation  for  amiability. 

c.  They  keep  alive  his  kindly  feelings. 

d.  They  produce  images  of  beauty  in  his  mind. 

e.  They  win  for  him  love  and  gratitude. 

III.  The  Influence  upon  the  Hearer. 

a.  They  shame  him  out  of  anger. 

b.  They  comfort  him  in  grief. 
(?.    They  soothe  him  in  pain. 


SUGGESTIVE   ABSTKACTS  175 

IV.    The  Influence  upon  Children. 
V.    The  Influence  upon  the  Poor. 
VI.   The  Influence  upon  Other  People. 

a.  The  morose. 

b.  The  misanthropic. 

c.  The  wicked. 

d.  The  weak. 

VII.   Uses  of  Kind  Words. 
VIII.   Value  of  Kind  Words. 
IX.   Compared  with  : 

a.  Angry  words. 

b.  Cold  words. 

c.  Hot  words. 

d.  Bitter  words. 

e.  Vain  words,  idle  words,  empty  words,  profane  words, 

&c. 

X.  Conclude  by  any  instances  you  may  be  able  to  recall  of  the 
influence  of  kind  words  in  your  experience  ;  as,  an  anecdote  or 
incident. 

Politeness 
I.   Definition. 

Ease  and  grace  of  manner  in  the  expression  of  a  desire  to  please 
others,  and  a  careful  attention  to  their  wants  and  wishes. 
II.   Politeness  exacts  of  us  : 

a.  Unselfishness,  in  our  care  for  the  comfort  or  pleasure 

of  others. 

b.  Elegance  of  manner,  in  our  desire  to  please  by  our  de- 

portment. 

c.  Deference  toward  our  superiors,  either  in  age,  station 

or  importance. 

d.  Kindness  to  our  inferiors,  either  children  or  servants. 
III.   Value  of  Politeness. 

a.  Proceeds  from  the  impulse  01  a  kindly  nature,  proving 

a  good  heart. 

b.  Will  admit  of  a  great  degree  of  polish,  proving  a  fin- 

fthed  education. 

c.  Gives  respect  where  it  is  due,  and  thus  wins  considera- 

tion in  return. 


176  LANGUAGE 

d.  Gives  kindness  to  inferiors,  and  thus  wins  respect  and 

gratitude  from  them. 

e.  Promotes  good  feeling  among  friends. 
/.    Assuages  discord,  even  among  enemies. 

IV.   Natural  Politeness. 

a.  Proceeds  from  the  heart  without  instruction. 

b.  Often  to  be  found  among  the  rough  and  uncultivated, 

even   if  more  clumsily  expressed  than  among  the 
educated  and  refined. 
V.   Acquired  Politeness. 

a.  The  observance  of  points  of  etiquette  and  good  breed- 

ing by  the  well  educated. 

b.  Mere  polish  of  manner,  often  covering  a  selfish,  hard 

nature. 
VI.   Politeness  in  different  Countries. 

a.  The  etiquette  of  one  nation  often  considered  rude  or 

insulting  in  another. 

b.  Every  race,  even  the  most  savage,  has  some  form  of 

outward  politeness. 

c.  Name  any  peculiar  form  of  etiquette  you  may  have 

seen  or  read  of. 

VII.  Politeness  in  Children  and  Young  People  is  one  of  the  most 
winning  and  graceful  of  attributes.  It  is  a  mistaken 
idea  to  fancy  rudeness  a  token  of  manliness  or  bravery. 
Bayard,  one  of  the  bravest  of  cavaliers,  was  one  of  the 
most  finished  gentlemen  mentioned  in  history. 
VIII.  Perfect  Politeness  may  be  defined  as  the  union  of  natural 
politeness  of  the  heart,  with  the  acquired  politeness  of 
Etiquette  and  Custom.  Holmes  describes  the  combi- 
nation : 

"  So  gentle  blending  courtesy  and  art, 
That  wisdom's  lips  seemed  borrowing  friendship's  heart. " 

Wisdom  and  Wealth 

I.   Wealth  may  be  defined  as : 

a.  Great  possessions. 

b.  A  large  amount  of  worldly  good. 


SUGGESTIVE   ABSTRACTS 


177 


II.  Mere  Money  may,  it  is  true,  be  considered  as  Wealth,  but 
are  there  not  more  precious  possessions,  worldly  goods 
far  more  valuable  ? 

III.  Poverty,  it  is  true,  will  impede  our  search  for  Wisdom,  as 

we  shall  lack  : 

a.  Time  for  study,  if  obliged  to  earn  a  livelihood. 

b.  The  means  of  buying  books. 

c.  The  advantage  of  good  instruction. 

IV.  But  Wisdom  once  gained  is  preferable  to  Money,  for  these 

reasons : 
a.   Once  gained  it  cannot  be  taken  from  us,  while  money 

may  be  lost  by  a  thousand  reverses. 
6.    It  can  never  be  given  to  us,  but  we  must  taste  the 
sweets  of  exertion  and  enjoy  the  reflection  that  we 
have  earned  our  treasures. 

c.  We  can  never  acquire  wisdom  by  theft,  or  inherit  it 
when  dishonestly  acquired,  as  we  might  mere  money. 
a.  Wisdom  is  independence.  The  man  who  has  acquired 
knowledge  can  in  a  great  measure  control  his  own 
future.  His  opportunities  for  earning  money  are 
largely  increased ;  his  pleasures  lie  in  his  love  of 
reading  and  study,  and  are  therefore  always  open  to 
him ;  he  is  respected  by  his  fellow  men  ;  he  never 
feels  the  weariness  of  the  vacant  mind ;  if  reverses 
come  to  him  his  wisdom  enables  him  to  meet  them 
bravely  and  often  to  conquer  them 
V.  Conclusion. 

In  starting,  therefore,  in  life,  the  possession  of  wisdom  is 
far  preferable  to  the  possession  of  mere  money,  if  ignorance  is  the 
price  of  the  latter.  A  fool  can  never  win  honor  or  even  respect 
though  he  were  to  possess  unbounded  riches ;  all  the  pleasures 
that  can  be  purchased  are  nothing  compared  to  the  delights  of  a 
cultivated  mind  arid  refined  intellect. 

Seek,  therefore,  to  gain  wisdom,  that  you  may  possess  the 
true  wealth  that  can  never  be  taken  away  from  you,  that  you 
win  never  lose,  that  you  may  impart  freely  tc  others,  and  in  so 
imparting  increase  your  own  store  rather  than  diminish  it. 


178  LANGUAGE 

Whose  life  more  brightly  illuminates  the  pages  of  the  past — 
the  wise  man's  or  the  rich  man's  ? 

In  the  history  of  the  future,  aim  rather  to  figure  as  a  Socrates 
than  as  a  Croesus. 

Compare  the  life  of  the  wisest  man  you  can  remember,  and 
that  of  the  richest  man. 

Knowledge  is  Power  ;  Wisdom  is  Wealth. 

Absent   Friends 

I.  Introduction. 

In  this  world  of  change,  every  one  is  called  upon  to  feel  the 
pain  of  separation  from  friends  endeared  by  association  or  acts  of 
kindness.  The  dearest  friends  are  severed  by  circumstances, 
often  having  the  ocean  between  them. 

II.  Treatise. 

a.  Affection  is  kept  warm  by  kind  remembrance. 

b.  Tender  recollections  will  dwell  upon  words  spoken  by 

the  absent,  and  the  memory  of  their  acts  will  be 
cherished  with  pleasure. 

c.  Their  return  to  us,  or  our  joining  them,  will  be  an- 

ticipated with  delight. 

d.  The  circumstances  under  which  separation  took  place 

will  seriously  affect  our  thoughts. 

1.  Parting  in  anger      Time  heals  rage. 

2.  Parting  in  affection.     Time  should  increase  love. 

3.  Parting  in  sorrow.      Anticipated  joy  of  meeting 

again. 

e.  Separation  by  death. 

1.  Memory  of  friends  then  becomes  holy  and  pleasant. 

2.  Faults  are  forgotten  when  the  grave  closes  over  them. 

3.  But  few  homes  are  without  their  unf orgotten  dead, 

whose  memory  is  associated  with  some  spot  or  hour. 
/.   Compare  the  pain  of  parting  and  the  pleasure  of  meeting. 

1.  After  a  journey. 

2.  After  years  of  separation. 

3.  Hope  of  reunion  in  another  world. 

"The  joy  of  meeting  pays  the  pangs  of  absence  ; 
JjUse  who  could  bear  it  ? " 


SYNONYMS  179 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS 

1.  Make  a  plan  or  outline  of  the  essay  before  writing  any  part  of  it. 

2.  Note  down  in  writing  any  useful  thought  that  may  occur  to  you 

while  you  are  collecting  material  for  your  composition. 

EXERCISE  IN  SYNONYMS 

1.  Custom — habit. — Custom  respects  the  action  ;  habit  the  actor. 

By  custom  we  mean  the  frequent  repetition  of  the  same 
act ;  by  habit  the  effect  which  that  repetition  produces  on 
the  mind  or  the  body. 

2.  Pride — vanity. — Pride  makes  us   esteem  ourselves  ;  vanity 

makes  us  desire  the  esteem  of  others. 

3.  Enough — sufficient. — Enough  relates  to  the  quantity  which 

one  wishes  to  have  of  anything ;  sufficient  is  all  that  is 
needed. 

4.  Remark — observe. — We  remark  in  the  way  of  attention,  in 

order  to  remember ;  we  observe  in  the  way  of  examination, 
in  order  to  judge. 

5.  Qualified — competent. — Qualified,  having  the  training,  skill, 

knowledge  ;  competent,  having  the  power. 

6.  Entire — complete— perfect. — Entire,  having  all  its  parts  ;  com- 

plete, all  its  appendages  ;  perfect,  all  essentials,  without  flaw. 

7.  fortitude — courage. — Fortitude,  power  to  endure  pain  ;  cour- 

age, power  to  face  danger. 

8.  Vocation — avocation. —  Vocation  is  the  calling  or  profession ; 

avocation,  the  temporary  employment. 

9.  Excuse — pardon— forgive. — We   excuse   slight    offences  ;    we 

pardon  manifest  faults  ;  we  forgive  sin. 

10.  Or  and  —  sublime.     Lovely — pretty  —  beautiful.      (We   omit 

definitions.    Point  out  the  distinctions.) 

11.  Amuse — divert — entertain. — Amuse,  to  pass  time  lightly  and 

pleasantly  away  ;  divert,  to  turn  one's  thoughts  to  some- 
thing of  a  livelier  interest ;  entertain,  to  put  the  mind  into 
agreeable  contact  with  others,  as  through  conversation,  or  a 
book. 

12.  Arduous — hard — difficult. — Difficult,  anything  that  requires 

more  or  less  exertion  to  perform  it ;  hardf  that  which  re- 


180  LANGUAGE 

quires  a  decidedly  greater  effort  to  perform  it ;  arduous, 
that  which  requires  strenuous  and  persevering  effort  to  per- 
form it. 

13.    Gospel. — Derived  from  the  Saxon  adjective  G6d,  meaning 
good,  and  spell,  a  narrative — the  good  narrative,   or  glad 
tidings.     Distinguish  it  from  Scripture. 
This  can  be  made  a  very  pleasant  and  instructive  ex- 
ercise ;  the  teacher  should  explain  and  illustrate  the 
synonyms,  and  require  the  pupils  to  form  sentences, 
using  the  words  correctly.     It  will  teach  precision  in 
the  use  of  words  ;  great  care  should  be  taken  to  distin- 
guish between   the  general   meanings  and   particular 
applications.     Wilson's  "  Elementary  English  "  will  be 
found  useful ;  and  Rogers  "  Thesaurus  "  is  invaluable. 
Instruct  the  pupils  to  use  simple,  plain  terms  ;  com- 
pare the  quotations  below  and  study  the  difference  in 
the  purpose  and  form  of  expression. 

"  Life  is  real,  life  is  earnest ;  and  the  grave  is  not  its  goal ; 
Dust  thou  art,  to  dust  returnest,  was  not  spoken  of  the  soul." 

Longfellow. 

"  Life  is  the  definite  combination  of  definite  composite  hetero- 
geneous changes,  both  simultaneous  and  successive,  in  correspond- 
ence with  external  co-existences  and  sequences." — Herbert  Spencer. 

COMMON  MISTAKES 

1.  "  We  have  no  corporeal  punishment  here/'  said  a 
teacher.     Corporeal  means  having  a  body  and  is  opposed 
to  spiritual.     Say,  corporal  punishment. 

2.  "  Set  down  and  rest  yourself  ;"  say,  sit  down. 

3.  "  Who  do  you  mean  ?"  say  whom. 

4.  "  He  has  got  my  slate  ; "  omit  got. 

5.  "  Wlio  done  it  \"  say  did  it. 

6.  (t  I  intended  to  have  written  a  letter  yesterday  ; " 
say,  to  write. 


MISTAKES   AHD  VtJLGAKISMS  181 

7.  "  The  girl  speaks  distinct ;  "  say,,  distinctly. 

8.  "  He  lives  at  New  York  ; "  say,  in  New  York. 

9.  "  He  made  a  great  splurge  ;  "  say,  he  made  a  blus- 
tering effort.     The  first  savors  of  slang. 

10.  "My  brother  lays  ill  of  a  fever  ;"  should  be  my 
brother  lies  ill  of  a  fever. 

VULGAEISMS 

The  following  words  and  expressions  should  be  strictly 
avoided  in  conversation  and  in  writing.  Only  a  few  of 
the  many  hundreds  in  use  are  given,  simply  as  sug- 
gestions. 

1.  "  Acknowledge  the  corn/' — instead  of  to  admit. 

2.  "  Ain't," — instead  of  am  not  or  isn't. 

3.  "  Awful,"— instead  of  ugly  or  difficult. 

4.  "  Beat  out,"— instead  of  tired. 

5.  ' '  Dreadful,  "—instead  of  very. 

6.  "  Hopping  mad,"— instead  of  very  angry. 

7.  "  Strapped," — wanting  or  out  of  money. 

8.  "  Wrathy," — instead  of  angry. 

9.  "Female," — correctly  used  with  reference  to  sex  alone.  To 
speak  of  a  woman  simply  as  a  female  is  ridiculous. 

The  teacher  should  keep  a  record  of  all  the  mistakes 
made  by  the  pupils,  and  encourage  them  to    Recordof 
do  the  same.     Once  a  week  these  should  be    mistakes. 
written  on  the  board,  and  corrected  by  the  pupils,  the 
teacher  assisting  when  necessary. 

The  pupils  should  be  required  to  copy  in  a  note-book 
the  exercises  in  a  form  similar  to  the  above. 

Let  the  pupils  learn  the  correct  way  of  speaking  by  a 
correct  use  of  the  term.  Arbitrary  rules  are  of  little 
use  in  the  beginning. 


182  LAH6tTAGE 

FINAL  SUGGESTIONS 

The  teacher,  at  first,  will  assist  the  pupils  to  classify 
outlines  of  subjects,  draw  outlines,  and  form  correct 
compositions,  tabulations.  Questions  may  be  used  for  a 
brief  time,  to  teach  classification ;  but  should  be  cast 
aside  as  soon  as  possible.  The  teacher  should  always 
require  pupils  to  hand  in  an  outline  of  the  subject. 
This  plan  will  cultivate  individuality  and  originality 
and  give  the  pupils  a  training,  intellectually,  that  will 
prove  of  great  service  in  after  life. 

The  teacher  must  not  attempt  to  do  any  more  than 

Thought  the  S^e  Can  ^°  We^'  ^  Would  not  do,  for  ill- 
one  essential,  stance,  to  select  an  object  in  which  the 
properties  to  be  illustrated  were  not  well  developed,  nor 
an  object  with  which  the  pupils  were  not  familiar. 

Every  lesson  should  be  given  in  such  a  way  as  to 
draw  out  the  perceptive  powers  of  the  pupil  by  leading 
him  to  reflect  on  what  he  sees,  or  to  analyze  the  object 
before  him.  Powers  are  to  be  strengthened  only  by 
teaching  the  pupil  to  THINK  upon  what  he  sees. 

1.  Prepare  yourself  beforehand  on  the  subject,  fixing 
important       *n  JOUY  mind  exactly  what  aspects  you  will 
suggestions,     bring  up,  just  what  definitions  and  illustra- 
tions you  will  give  or  draw  out  of  the  class. 

2.  Have  the  work   marked  or  written  down  in  the 
form  of  a  synopsis. 

3.  Use  the  board  in  all  exercises  ;  write  on  it  techni- 
cal words,  classification  of  the  knowledge  brought  out 
in  the  recitation,   and,   whenever  possible,  illustrative 
drawings. 


FINAL    SUGGESTIONS  183 

4.  Whenever  the  subject  is  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
allow  it,  the  teacher  should  bring  in  real  objects  illus- 
trative of  it  and  encourage  the  children  to  do  the  same. 

5.  Do  not  burden  the  pupil  with  too  many  new  tech- 
nical phrases  at  a  time,  nor  fall  into  the  opposite  error 
of  using  only  the  loose  common  vocabulary  of  ordinary 
life,  which  lacks  scientific  precision. 

6.  Discuss  the  topics  thoroughly. 

7.  Do  not  overburden  the  pupil's  memory. 

8.  Do  not  distract  his  power  of  attention. 

9.  Never  take  up  a  topic  that  you  are  unable  to  ex- 
plain and  illustrate  so  clearly  as  to  make  the  pupil  un- 
derstand it. 

10.  Avoid  all  phases  of  the  subject  that  will  tend  to 
confuse  rather  than  enlighten. 

11.  Draw  out  in  a  conversational  way  the  experience 
and  information  which  your  scholars  already  possess  on 
the  subject. 

12.  Never  omit  to  show  by  a  synopsis  on  the  board 
what  has  been  discussed  in  the  lesson,  its  classification 
and  relation. 

13.  Eequire  short  weekly  compositions  of  the  pupils, 
expressing  in  their  own  language  their  ideas  on  the 
subject. 

By  spending  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  each  day,  in  a 
familiar,  conversational  lecture,  upon  some    TopiCSfor 
topic  or  object,  selected  from  the  following    brief  talks- 
list,  not  only  will  the  scholars  be  interested  and  learn 
many  new  truths  in  a  way  to  remember  them,  but  the 
teacher  himself  will  derive  great  advantage  from  his 
preparation  for  such  an  exercise.     Whenever  it  can  be 
done,  the  means  of  illustration  should  be  at  hand,  to 


184 


LANGUAGE 


demonstrate  to  the  eye,  and  thus  fasten  upon  the  mind 
the  facts  and  reasoning  of  the  lecturer.  The  curiosity 
of  the  pupils  should  be  excited,  and  questions  and  re- 
marks should  be  encouraged,  for  by  these  means  they 
will  be  led  to  closer  habits  of  thought  and  observation. 

45.  Feathers. 

46.  Coral. 

47.  Gutta-percha. 

48.  A  piece  of  fur. 

49.  Rotundity  of  the 
earth. 

50.  Spheroidal  form 
of  the  earth. 

51.  Origin  and  use  of 
salt  in  the  sea. 

52.  Commerce. 

53.  The  seasons. 

54.  Phases  of  the 
moon. 

55.  Tides. 

56.  Eclipses. 

57.  Electricity. 

58.  Mariner's  com- 
pass. 

59.  Circulation  of  the 
blood. 

Questions  for  Debate 

Is  the  farmer  the  most  useful  member  of  society  ? 
Does  wealth  tend  to  exalt  the  human  character  ? 
Has  civilization  increased  human  happiness  ? 
Are  great  men  the  greatest  benefactors  of  the  world  ? 
Is  intemperance  a  greater  evil  than  war  ? 


1. 

2. 

Glass. 
India-rubber. 

23.   Vinegar. 
24.  Butter. 

3. 

Leather. 

25.   Cheese. 

4. 
5. 

Sponge. 
Wool. 

26.   Coffee. 
27.  Tea. 

6. 

Wax. 

28.   Rice. 

7. 
8. 

Whalebone. 
Bread. 

29.   Paper. 
30.   Cotton. 

9. 
10. 

Ivory. 
Chalk. 

31.   Flax. 
32.   Silk. 

11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 

A  pin. 
A  pencil. 
A  brick. 
An  acorn. 

33.   Gold. 
34.   Silver. 
35.   Mercury. 
36.   Lead. 

15. 
16. 

A  cork. 
A  stone. 

37.   Copper. 
38.   Iron. 

17. 

Cinnamon. 

39.   Tin. 

18. 
19. 
20. 

Nutmeg. 
Ginger. 
Gloves. 

40.   Lime. 
41.  Coal. 
42.    Granite. 

21. 

Water. 

43.   Salt. 

22. 

oil. 

44.   Slate. 

MISCELLANEOUS    TOPICS 


185 


Do  inventions  improve  the  condition  of  the  laboring 
classes  ? 

Is  the  expectation  of  reward  a  greater  incentive  to 
exertion  than  the  fear  of  punishment  ? 

Do  savage  nations  possess  the  right  to  the  soil  ? 

Is  the  mind  of  woman  inferior  to  that  of  man  ? 

Is  the  pen  mightier  than  the  sword  ? 

Has  increased  wealth  a  favorable  influence  on  the 
morals  of  the  people  ? 

Did  the  Crusaders  benefit  Europe  ? 

Was  the  invention  of  gunpowder  an  evil  ? 

Is  the  existence  of  political  parties  an  evil  ? 

Is  the  pulpit  a  better  field  for  eloquence  than  the  bar  ? 

Subjects  for  Compositions 


Spring. 

Flowers. 

A  Thunder-storm. 

What  becomes  of  the  Rain. 

Blessings  of  Hope. 

Flowers  of  Memory. 

The  Prairies. 

Unity  in  Diversity. 

Snow. 

Mountains. 

Forests. 

The  Beauties  of  Nature. 

Our  Country. 

The  Study  of  History. 

Peace. 

War. 

The  Ruins  of  Time. 

The  Fickleness  of  Fortune. 

A  Dream. 

A  Ray  of  Light. 


A  Drop  of  Water. 

Immutability  of  Change. 

Town  and  Country. 

Never  Give  Up. 

Benevolence. 

History  of  a  Looking-glass. 

Power  of  Mind. 

The  Bible. 

The  Sunny  Side. 

The  Aurora  Borealis. 

The  Earth. 

The  Shady  Side. 

Human  Genius. 

Aim  High. 

Past  and  Present. 

Book  of  Nature. 

Hope  On,  Hope  Ever. 

Nature's  Mysteries. 

The  Contrast. 

The  Starry  Heavens. 


186 


LANGUAGE 


By-gone  Hours. 
Immortality  of  the  Soul. 
Influence   of  the  Great  and 

Good. 

Poetry  of  Nature. 
Music  of  Nature. 
Memory  of  our  Fathers. 
Matter  and  Mind. 
The  Stuff  that  Dreams  are 

made  of. 
The  Seasons. 
Heat. 
Light. 

The  Spirit  of  Discovery. 
The  Art  of  Fruiting. 
Newspapers. 
Novelty. 
The  Sun. 
The  Rainbow. 
The  Moon, 
the  Stars. 

The  Study  of  Geography. 
The  Pleasures  of  Travelling. 
The  Application  of  Steam. 
Rivers. 
To-morrow. 
The  Ocean. 
Manufactures. 
The  Influence  of  Women. 
Hero-worship. 
Magic  of  Kindness. 
Cost  of  Civility. 
Things  that  Cost  Nothing. 
The  Orphan. 
The  Rolling  Stone. 
Teachers. 
Loved  Faces. 


We  Bloom  To-Day,   To-m6r- 
row  Die ! 

The  Wreath  of  Fame. 

Reflections  of  a  Looking-glass. 

Early  Companionship. 

Music  of  the  Sea-shell. 

Letter  from  the  Town. 

Letter  from  the  Country. 

Tricks  of  Trade. . 

Keepsakes. 

My  Room-mate. 

The  True  Friend. 

What  Shall  we  Read  ? 

School  Associations. 

Paddle  Your  Own  Canoe. 

Star  of  Home. 

One  by  One. 

I've  Wandered  in  Dreams. 

Philosophy  of  a  Tear. 

Music  of  the  Spheres. 

Oppression  the  Nursery  of  Re- 
form. 

The  Book. 

Peaceful  Conquests. 

The  True  Hero. 

Sources  of  a  Nation's  Wealth. 

Commerce. 

Early  Rising. 

Cheerfulness. 

The  Uses  of  Biography. 

The  Backwoodsman. 

Punctuality. 

Curiosity. 

Foppery. 

Gardening. 

Modern  Delusions. 

Young  America. 


MISCELLANEOUS    TOPICS  187 

The  Multiplication  of  Books.  The    First    Stroke   is   Half  the 

The  Philosopher's  Stone.  Battle. 

Nature  and  Art.  Make  Hay  while  the  Sun  Shines. 

The  Freedom  of  the  Press.  Necessity  is  the  Mother  of  In- 

The  Present.  vention. 

The  Past.  A  Picture  of  Fancy. 

The  Future.  Leaflets  of  Memory. 

Silent  Influence.  A  Soft  Answer  Turneth  away 

The  Monuments  of  Antiquity.  Wrath. 

Rome  was  not  Built  in  a  Day.  Avoid  Extremes. 

A  list  of  1,000  graded  subjects  for  composition  will 
be  found  in* Emerson's  "Rules  for  Essay- Writing." 

REFERENCE  BOOKS 

VERBAL  PITFALLS.  A  manual  of  1,500  words  commonly 
misused,  including  all  those  the  .use  of  which  in  any  sense  has 
been  questioned  by  Dean  Alvord,  G.  W.  Moon,  Fitzedward  Hall, 
Archbishop  Trench,  Wm.  C.  Hodgson,  W.  L.  Blackley,  G.  F. 
Graham,  Richard  Grant  White,  M.  Schele  de  Vere,  Wm.  Mat- 
thews, "Alfred  Ay  res,"  and  many  others.  Arranged  alphabet- 
ically, with  3,000  references  and  quotations,  and  the  rulings  of 
tne  dictionaries.  By  C.  W.  Bardeen.  16mo,  pp.  223.  75  cts. 

ORTHOEPY  MADE  EASY.  A  Royal  Road  to  Correct  Pronuncia- 
tion. By  M.  W.  Hall.  16mo,  pp.  103.  75  cts. 

OUTLINES  OF  SENTENCE  MAKING.  A  brief  course  in  compo- 
sition. By  C.  W.  Bardeen.  12mo,  pp.  187.  60  cts. 

A  SYSTEM  OF  RHETORIC.  By  C.  W.  Bardeen.  12mo,  pp.  813. 
$1.75. 

A  SHORTER  COURSE  IN  RHETORIC.  By  C.W.  Bardeen.  12mo, 
pp.  311.  $1.00. 


GRAMMAR 


Grammar  deals  largely  with  abstract  relations,  and 
A  mature  ^or  tn^s  reason  some  maturity  in  the  pupil  is 
study.  indispensable.  A  great  deal  of  time  is  wasted 

upon  this  subject ;  if  presented  wisely  and  at  the  proper 
time  it  will  prove  delightful  and  interesting. 

A  common  fault  in  teaching  grammar  is  to  require 
pupils  to  commit  to  memory  definitions  and  rules  that 
have  for  him  no  meaning.  Grammar  should  at  first  be 
taught  orally ;  all  the  terms  should  be  developed,  ex- 
plained  and  illustrated  by  copious  examples.  When 
these  terms  are  fully  understood,  then,  and  not  until 
then,  should  the  pupils  be  required  to  commit  the  rules 
to  memory.  As  fast  as  the  terms  are  learned,  the 
pupils  should  be  required,  in  all  cases,  to  embody  them 
in  sentences  of  their  own  construction. 

GENERAL  PLAN  OF  STUDY 
I.    Develop  the  Sentence. 


II.    Develop  the  parts  of  a 
Sentence. 


III.    Develop  the  kinds  of 
Sentences  (as  to  use.) 


1.  Subject. 

2.  Predicate. 

1.  Declarative, 

2.  Interrogative. 

3.  Imperative. 


4.    Exclamatory. 
(138) 


GENERAL   PLAN  OF  STUDY  189 

fl.    Simple. 
. 
2.    Complex. 
3.    Compound. 

V.    Teach  the  correct  use  of  Capital  Letters. 
VI.    Teach  the  correct  use  of  Punctuation  Marks. 

The  Sentence 

Ask  the  pupils  to  think  of  some  object.     Ask  them 
how  you  may  know  the  name  of  the  object. 
They  perceive  that  before  their  thoughts  can 
be  known  to  others  they  must  express  them.      In  order 
to  communicate  your  thoughts,   what  must  you  use  ? 
They  will  discover  that  to  express  a  thought,  they  must 
use  words.     Now  ask  each  pupil  to  express  a  thought, 
as  "  The  bird  sings  ;"    "  The  tree  grows  ;"    "  The  boy 
laughs  ;"  "  The  clock  ticks  •"  etc.     They  are  now  told 
that  a  thought  expressed  in  words  is  called  a  sentence. 

Eequire  the  pupils  to  form  several  sentences  orally, 
using  the  following  analysis  : 

I  first  think  about  something  ;  I  use  words  to  express 
my  thought.  The  words  used  are:  "  The  bird  sings." 
These  words  express  a  thought,  and  form  a  sentence.  A 
thought  expressed  in  words  is  called  a  Sentence. 

The  pupils  have  already  discovered  that  there  must 
be  an  object  or  subject  of  thought  in  the 
mind.     And  when  they  tell  their  thoughts 
they  speak  of  some  object  or  subject  and  tell  something 
about  it.     They  are  led  to  see  this  in  every  sentence. 
By  repeated  trials  they  soon  find  that  they  can  form  no 
sentence  without  speaking  of  something  and  telling 
something  about  it. 


190  GRAMMAR 

Ask  the  pupils  to  express  a  sentence  and  analyze  it. 
"  The  clock  ticks. " 

"  The  clock  ticks/'  is  a  thought  expressed  in  words  ;  it 
is  a  sentence.  The  word  "clock"  represents  the  object 
upoken  of;  it  is  the  subject.  The  word  "ticks'9  repre- 
sents what  is  said  of  the  clock  ;  it  is  the  predicate. 

That  of  which  something  is  said,  is  called  the  subject. 

That  which  is  said  of  the  subject  is  called  the  predi- 
cate. 

By  a  similar  process  of  development  the  pupils  are 
The  object,  led  to  observe  the  object  of  a  sentence. 

The  teacher  should  write  at  the  board  all  the  sen- 
tences given. 

It  would  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  ask  questions  of 
Kinds  of  sen-  ^ne  pupils  and  endeavor  to  get  in  reply  the 
tences.  different  kinds  of  sentences,  as  asking,  tell- 

ing, etc.  The  teacher  should  write  these  sentences  as 
given  by  the  pupils  on  the  board,  and  let  the  pupils  dis- 
cover the  differences.  Let  them  see  that  every  telling 
or  declarative  sentence,  ends  with  a  period.  Every  ask- 
ing or  interrogative  sentence  ends  with  the  mark  of 
interrogation  ;  every  exclaiming  sentence  with  an  excla- 
mation point ;  and  every  commanding  or  imperative 
sentence  with  &  period. 

REVIEW. — To  be  committed  to  memory. 

1.  A  thought  expressed  in  words,  is  a  Sentence. 

2.  That  of  which  something  is  said,  is  called  the  Sub- 
ject. 

3.  That  which  tells  what  is  said  of  the  subject,  is 
called  the  Predicate. 

4.  That  which  receives  the  act  expressed  by  the  predi- 
cate, is  called  the  Object. 


KINDS   OF   SENTENCES  191 

Every  sentence  should  leg  in  with  a  Capital  Letter. 
Every  sentence  should  end  with  a  Punctuation  Mark. 

The  Telling,  or  Declarative  Sentence 

Teacher.  Make  a  sentence  about  this  cap. 

Pupil.  The  cap  is  red. 

(The  teacher  writes  on  the  board,  while  the  pupils 
spell  the  words. ) 

T.  What  did  you  do  wnen  you  made  this  sentence  ? 

P.  We  told  you  something  said  about  the  cap. 

T.  Because  this  sentence  tells  or  says  something, 
what  kind  of  a  sentence  may  we  call  it  ? 

P.  We  may  call  it  a  telling  sentence. 

T.  What  then  is  a  telling  sentence  ? 

P.  A  sentence  that  tells  or  declares  something. 

T.  What  mark  must  be  placed  after  the  last  word  of 
every  telling  sentence  ? 

P.  A  period. 

T.  What  have  we  learned  in  our  lesson  of  to-day  ? 

P.  A  sentence  that  tells  something  is  called  a  Telling, 
or  Declarative  Sentence.  We  must  place  a  Period  after 
the  last  word  of  every  telling,  or  declarative  sentence. 

Eequire  the  pupils  to  write  on  their  slates  the  defini- 
Fix  facts  by  ^on  °^  a  sentence,  subject,  predicate,  object, 
wnting  them.  a  telling  sentence  and  the  rule  for  punctua- 
tion. Let  the  pupils  spell  the  words,  and  examine  the 
slates  carefully. 

The  Asking,  or  Interrogative  Sentence 

T.  I  will  ask  you  a  question,  and  will  write  it  on  the 
board.     "  Do  you  love  study  ?  "    What  did  I  do  ? 
P.  You  asked  a  question. 


192  GRAMMAB 

T.  Because  it  asks  a  question,  what  kind  of  a  sentence 
is  it? 

P.  An  asking  sentence. 

T.  What  is  an  asking  sentence  ? 

P.  A  sentence  that  asks  a  question  is  an  asking  sen- 
tence. 

Let  the  pupils  repeat,  spell  words,  and  write  the  defi- 
nition on  their  slates  ;  ask  them  to  examine  their  reading 
books,  and  bring  in  asking  sentences. 

Drill  upon  the  above  until  every  member  knows  how 
to  use  the  period  and  the  interrogation  mark. 

The  Commanding,  or  Imperative  Sentence 

T.  Tell  me  to  do  something.  Can  I  use  another  word 
instead  of  tell? 

P.  You  can  use  command. 

T.  Give  me  a  command. 

P.  "Hand  me  a  cup." 

T.  What  does  this  sentence  do  ? 

P.  It  makes  a  command. 

T.  What  kind  of  a  sentence  may  we  call  it  ? 

P.  A  commanding  sentence. 

T.  What  is  a  commanding  sentence  ? 

P.  A  sentence  that  expresses  a  command  is  a  com- 
manding sentence. 

T.  What  mark  have  I  placed  after  the  last  word  of 
the  commanding  sentence  ? 

P.  A  period. 

T.  How  do  I  begin  a  commanding  sentence  ? 

P.  With  a  capital  letter. 

T.  How  do  I  close  it  ? 

P.  With  a  period. 


KINDS  OF  SENTENCES  193 

T.  What  is  a  sentence  ? 

What  is  a  telling  sentence  ? 

What  is  an  asking  sentence  ? 

What  is  a  commanding  sentence  ? 

How  do  I  close  every  asking  sentence  ? 

How  do  I  close  every  telling  sentence  ? 

Write  five  telling,  five  asking,  and  five  command- 
ing sentences. 

Write  the  definitions  of  the  telling,  asking  and 
commanding  sentences. 

The  Exclaiming,  or  Exclamatory  Sentence 

T.  If  you  should  see  a  house  on  fire,  what  would  you 
say  ? 

P.  "  0,  see  the  fire  ! "  "A  house  on  fire  ! " 

T.  What  would  you  call  these  expressions  ? 

P.  Exclamations. 

T.  What  do  these  sentences  do  ? 

P.  They  make  exclamations. 

jP.   What  kind  of  sentences  are  they  ? 

P.  Exclaiming  sentences. 

T.  What  is  an  exclaiming  sentence  ? 

P.  A  sentence  that  makes  an  exclamation,  is  an  ex- 
claiming sentence. 

T.  What  mark  do  you  find  after  the  last  word  ? 

P.  An  exclamation  point. 

T.  You  may  all  write  an  exclaiming  sentence. 

Kequire  the  pupils  to  repeat  all  the  definitions, — see 
that  they  understand  the  idea  before  com- 
mitting them  to  memory.  Let  them  construct    drill  in  com- 
and  write  many   sentences,    holding    them 
rigidly  to  the  correct  use  of  capital  letters  and  punctua- 


194  GRAMMAR 

tion  marks,  and  requiring  neatness  in  every  exercise. 
Work  on  each  sentence  until  it  is  right.  If  necessary 
to  success,  be  willing  to  work  three  days  on  one  short 
lesson.  "  Not  how  much,  but  how  well/'  should  be  the 
motto. 

Review,  to  be  committed  to  Memory. 

1.  A  thought  expressed  in  words  is  a  Sentence. 

2.  A  sentence  that  tells  or  declares  something  is  a 
Telling  or  Declaring  Sentence. 

3.  After  the  last  word  of  every  Telling  or  Declaring 
Sentence  we  must  place  a  Period. 

4.  A  sentence  that  asks  a  question  is  an  Asking  or 
Interrogative  Sentence. 

5.  After  the  last  word  of  every  Asking  or  Interroga- 
tive Sentence  we  must  place  an  Interrogation  Mark. 

6.  A  sentence  that  expresses  a  command  is  called  a 
Commanding  or  an  Imperative  Sentence. 

7.  After  the  last  word  of  every  Commanding  or  Im- 
perative Sentence,  we  must  place  a  Period. 

8.  A  sentence  that  makes  an  exclamation  is  an  Ex- 
claiming or  Exclamatory  Sentence. 

9.  After  the  last  word  of  every  Exclaiming  or  Ex- 
clamatory Sentence,  we  must  use  the  Exclamation  Point. 

NOTE. — Simple  as  this  may  seem,  it  requires  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  a  great  deal  of  patience  to  teach  it 
thoroughly.  This  is  a  very  important  subject,  and  the 
pupils  should  be  able  to  make  practical  application  of 
the  above  points.  "Make  haste  slowly." 

The  attention  of  the  pupils  should  be  called  to  the 
use  of  capi-  capital  letters  at  the  beginning  of  all  these 
tai  letters.  different  sentences.  This  is  very  important, 
and  one  of  the  most  practical  rules  in  grammar.  Ke- 


ANALYSIS   OF   SENTENCES  195 

quire  written  exercises  to  be  brought  into  the  class, 
subject  to  the  criticism  of  the  class  and  teacher. 

After  the  pupils  have  been  made  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  sentence,  subject,  predicate,  and 
object,  with  the  kinds  of  sentences,  capital 
letters  and  punctuation  marks,  they  should  be  required 
to  form  sentences  and  analyze  them,  and  write  the 
definitions  of  all  the  terms  that  have  been  taught.  A 
perfect  understanding  of  the  thought  to  be  expressed  is 
essential  to  correct  analysis  ;  hence,  the  first  step  should 
be  to  prepare  the  pupils  to  analyze  sentences  they  them- 
selves have  constructed.  When  they  have  become  quite 
expert  at  this,  they  may  analyze  the  thoughts  of  others. 

Let  it  be  the  aim  of  the  teacher  to  present  the  subject 
so  pleasantly  and  attractively  that  pupils  will  not  say, 
as  is  often  the  case,  "  What  a  dry,  distasteful,  uninter- 
esting subject." 

Sentences  Classified  According  to  their  Propositions 

T.  Jennie,  what  have  you  in  your  hand  ? 

P.  I  have  a  book.  (Teacher  writes  the  answer  on 
the  board.) 

T.  What  is  the  subject  ? 

P.  The  subject  is  "I." 

T.  What  is  the  predicate  ? 

P.  "  Have  a  book." 

T.  When  the  subject  and  predicate  express  a  complete 
thought  it  is  called  a  Single  Proposition. 

You  may  repeat  what  I  have  just  said. 

P.  Suppose  it  does  not  express  a  complete  thought  ? 

T.  It  may,  or  it  may  not,  express  a  complete  thought, 
and  still  be  a  proposition  •  for  a  proposition  is  the  union 


196  GRAMMAR 

of  a  subject  and  a  predicate.  In  the  example,  "I  have 
a  book,"  the  thought  is  complete.  In  the  example,  "If 
I  go,"  it  is  incomplete  ;  both  are  propositions. 

Fred,  do  you  like  the  boys  in  school  ? 

P.  I  like  the  boys  who  study. 

T.  Eead  the  first  proposition. 

P.   "  I  like  the  boys." 

T.  That  is  right:  why  is  that  a  proposition  ? 

P.  Because  it  is  the  union  of  a  subject  and  a  predi- 
cate. 

T.  What  kind  of  a  proposition  is  it  ? 

P.  A  single  proposition,  because  it  expresses  complete 
sense. 

T.  Do  the  words  "who  study"  make  sense  ? 

P.  They  do  not,  if  used  alone,  but  with  the  other 
proposition  they  assist  to  complete  the  sense. 

T.  That  is  right.  Are -the  words  "who  study"  a 
proposition  ? 

P.  They  are  ;  because  they  form  the  union  of  a  sub- 
ject and  predicate.  A  proposition  by  itself  may  or  may 
not  form  a  sentence. 

T.  What  is  such  a  proposition  as  "  who  study  ",  called  ? 
Do  you  know  ? 

P.  It  is  called  the  second  proposition. 

T.  You  might  call  it  that,  but  it  would  not  be  defi- 
nite: we  will  call  it  a  clause,  as  it  performs  different 
offices. 

In  the  sentence  "  I  like  the  boys  who  study,"  which 
do  you  think  is  the  principal  proposition  ? 

P.   "Hike  the  boys." 

T.  Why  do  you  think  that  is  the  principal  ? 


AHALYSIS   OF   SENTENCES  19? 

P.  Because  it  is  that  which  expresses  the  leading 
thought. 

T.  That  is  right.     Let  us  all  repeat  that. 

That  which  expresses  the  leading  thought  is  the  Lead- 
ing Proposition. 

P.  And  what  of  the  words  "  who  study  "  ? 

T.  Do  they  make  complete  sense  ? 

P.  They  do  not ;  they  seem  to  have  something  to  do 
with  the  principal  proposition. 

T.  That  is  right,  John.  They  tell  the  kind  of  boys. 
We  may  call  them  the  "  study  boys".  It  is  not  the 
principal  proposition.  What  shall  we  call  it  ?  In  a 
regiment  we  have  principal  officers  and — [Fred  answers 
"subordinate".]  That  is  right,  Fred.  As  the  words 
"who  study"  modify  the  principal  proposition  we  will 
call  them  a  subordinate  clause.  Now,  what  is  a  subor- 
dinate clause  ? 

P.  The  clause  that  modifies  the  principal  proposition 
is  a  Subordinate  Clause. 

T.  You  may  all  repeat  it  slowly ;  so  you  see  that  sub- 
ordinate parts  or  elements  are  those  that  belong  to 
other  elements.  They  are  called  subordinate  because 
they  are  under  in  order,  or  importance. 

Now,  let  us  find  another  kind  of  proposition.  I  sep 
two  boys  in  the  park.  Tell  their  names. 

P.  Charles  and  Frank. 

T.  What  are  they  doing  ? 

P.  Charles  runs  and  Frank  walks. 

(Teacher  writes  answer  at  the  board.) 

T.  Read  the  first  proposition. 

P.  Charles  runs. 

T.  Read  the  second  proposition. 


198 

P.  Frank  walks. 

T.  Does  the  last  proposition  belong  to  any  word  in 
the  first  ? 

P.  It  does  not. 

T.  Does  the  first  proposition  belong  to  any  word  in 
the  second  ? 

P.  It  does  not. 

T.  Does  the  first  proposition  express  a  complete 
thought  in  itself  ? 

P.  It  does. 

T.  Does  the  second  proposition  express  a  complete 
thought  in  itself  ? 

P.  It  does. 

T.  Since  each  proposition  expresses  a  thought  by 
itself,  meaning  that  it  is  not  dependent,  what  shall  we 
call  it  ?  I  will  tell  you.  We  call  the  propositions  Co- 
ordinate. It  means  that  the  propositions  are  of  equal 
rank.  We  will  now  repeat : 

Propositions  of  equal  rank  or  order  are  called  Co- 
ordinate. 

T.  A  sentence  composed  of  one  proposition  is  called  a 
Simple  Sentence  ;  a  sentence  composed  of  a  principal  and 
one  or  more  subordinate  propositions,  is  called  a  Complex 
Sentence;  a  sentence  composed  of  two  or  more  co-ordi- 
nate propositions  is  called  a  Compound  Sentence. 

The  teacher  should  not  leave  this  division  until  the 
pupils  can  bring  into  the  recitation  written  examples  of 
all  the  different  sentences.     He  should  also  require  the 
pupils  to  analyze  the  sentences. 
Review 

1.  A  proposition  is  the  union  of  a  subject  and  a 
predicate. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF 


199 


2.  A  proposition  ly  itself  may  or  may  not  form  a 
sentence. 

3.  A  single  proposition  is  a  sentence  when  it  expresses 
a  complete  thought. 

4.  A  proposition  may  form  an  element  of  a  sentence  ; 
it  is  then  called  a  clause. 

5.  The  principal  proposition  of  a  sentence  is   that 
which  expresses  the  leading  thought. 

6.  A  subordinate  proposition  is  one  that  modifies  the 
principal. 

7.  Co-ordinate  propositions  are  thosjs  of  equal  rank  in 
the  same  sentence. 

8.  A  simple  sentence  is  one  composed  of  hut  one  propo- 
sition. 

9.  A  complex  sentence  is  one  composed  of  a  principal 
and  one  or  more  subordinate  propositions. 

10.  A  compound  sentence  is  one  composed  of  two  or 
more  co-ordinate  propositions. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES  AND  THEIR  ELEMENTS 


Sentences, 

Clauses, 

Phrases, 

Subjects, 

Predicates, 

Objects, 

Attributes, 

Modifiers, 

Sentences, 


Clauses, 


Phrases, 


are  classified  in  respect  to 
and  use,  as 


are  classified  in  f  Declarative, 
respect  to  kind)  Interrogative, 
or   proposition,  1  Imperative, 
as  [Exclamatory, 

are  classified  in  respect  to  kind 
and  proposiJn,  as 

( 


Simple, 


Compound, 


Complex. 
Affirmative, 


positional, 


>  are  classified  in  respect  to  kind,  -j  Infinitive, 
)  (  Participial. 


200  GftAMMAH 

Sentences,       ^j  f  Substantive, 

Clauses,  L  are  classified  in  respect  to  office,    J  Adverbial' 

Phrases,  [  Independent. 

Elements,        \      -p  .     .     ,      (  Subject,  (  Verb, 

I      Principal,    -j  Pre(iica^  »  Copu'la  and 

^  *nhn««™te  j  Object,  (      attribute. 


Sentences.       J   Subordinate.  |  ^g^ 

Elements         )  ( Principal, 

of  v  are  classified  into  1 

Phrases  )  ( Adjunct, 

Conjunctions, 


Connective, 
Subsequent. 
Words, 
Modifiers. 


Conjunctive  Adverbs, 

Copulas, 

Phrases, 

Relative  Pronouns, 

Prepositions. 


Connecting  Elements  are 
classified  into 


Independent  Elements  are  ( 

(Words  of  Euphony. 

REFERENCE  BOOKS 

3000  Grammar  Questions,  with  Answers,  based  on  Brown's 
Grammar,  with  cross  references  to  the  grammars  of  Murray, 
Greene,  Clark,  Kerl,  Quackenbos,  Weld  &  Quackenbos,  Hall, 
Fowler,  Swinton,  Reed  &  Kellogg,  and  Whitney.  By  HENRY 
KIDDLE,  formerly  Sup't  of  Schools,  New  York  city.  16mo,  pp. 
200.  $1.00. 

Exercises  in  English  Syntax.  By  A.  G.  BUGBEE.  16mo,  pp.  81 
35  cts.  Key  35  cts. 


LETTER-WRITING 


Good  letter- writing  is  one  of  the  foundation-stones  of 
business,  and  one  of  the  strongest  connecting    Its  import. 
links  of  common  life.     It  were  to  be  wished    ance- 
that  more  attention  were  paid  to  the  subject  of  letter- 
writing  in  our  schools.     In  the  present  day,  when  igno- 
rance is  deservedly  at  a  discount,  and  when  so  much  is 
expected  of  every  one,  even  in  a  humble  position  in 
life,  there  is  no  reason  why  letters  should  furnish  so 
many  examples  of  outrageous  grammar    and  absurd 
diction. 

A  habit  of  expressing  oneself  distinctly  and  without 
pretension  ought  to  be  inculcated  in  early  life. 

When  the  difficulties  of  spelling  have  once  been  con- 
quered, there  will  be  little  difficulty  in  enabling  the 
pupil  to  acquire  such  simple  forms  of  letter-writing  as 
are  necessary  to  the  ordinary  correspondence  of  business. 

"True  ease  in  writing/' as  Pope  says,  "comes  by  art, 
not  chance/'  and  every  element  of  a  complete  educa- 
tion will  find  exercise  in  correspondence.  Here  we  can 
offer  only  a  few  suggestions  that  may  help  one  who  is 
at  loss  how  to  begin,  and  may  prevent  anything  like 
positive  awkwardness  or  inelegance. 

The  chief  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  guide  in  the 
manner  of  the  mechanical  detail  of  a  letter.    Mechanical 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  subject  will  re-    structure. 

(201) 


202  LETTER-WRITING 

ceive  attention,  and  that  pupils  may  be  taught  HOW  TO 

WRITE  A  LETTER. 

One  can  hardly  realize  that  there  is  a  daily  average 
of  12,000  or  15,000  dead  letters,  or  about 
400,000  a  month.  In  other  words  some 
400,000  persons  a  month  undertake  to  send  letters  either 
without  stamps,  without  addresses,  or  with  cancelled 
stamps,  insufficient  postage,  illegible  or  incorrect  ad- 
dresses. Many  letters  are  without  either  stamp  or 
address,  and  often  without  signature.  Strange  as  it 
may  seem,  these  are  sometimes  the  most  valuable  letters, 
often  containing  currency  or  drafts  for  large  amounts 
of  money.  It  is  estimated  that  some  $3,000,000  in 
drafts  and  $75,000  in  cash  are  sent  yearly  in  letters 
that  cannot  be  delivered.  This  is  all  returned,  if  pos- 
sible, to  the  persons  sending  it ;  but  if  any  portion  of  it 
fails  to  find  a  claimant,  it  is  turned  over  to  the  Post 
Office  fund. 

Little  difficulty  is  experienced  in  restoring  checks  and 
LOSS  of  drafts  to  the  rightful  owners,  but  money 

money.  generally  comes  in  small  sums,  and  is  sent 

in  the  most  careless,  haphazard  fashion.  The  loss  of 
these  amounts  represents  a  deal  of  suffering  and  disap- 
pointment. Some  hard  working  man  may  send  $20, 
the  savings  of  a  month's  labor,  to  his  wife  and  little 
ones  whom  he  has  had  to  leave  behind  him  ;  but,  alas, 
he  is  one  of  forty  thousand  who  trust  to  Providence, 
without  stamp  or  address,  or  else  his  writing  or  orthog- 
raphy are  beyond  mortal  ken,  and  so  the  poor  wife 
never  gets  the  pittance  which  is  her  all. 

During  November,  1876,  more  than  400,000  letters, 
newspapers  and  postal  cards,  were  received  for  delivery 


*IRST    SUGGESTIONS  203 

by  the  letter  carriers  of  New  York  city,  of  which  20, 000 
were  returned  by  them  as  undeliverable  on  account  of 
incorrect  and  illegible  superscriptions.  Four  millions 
and  a  half  accumulate  annually  in  the  United  States. 

Surely  every  teacher  should  give  instruction  in  Letter- 
Writing. 

It  has  been  taKen  for  granted,  that  pupils  who  could 
parse  and  analyze  a  simple  sentence,  bound  the  States 
and  Territories,  and  explain  an  example  in  cube  root, 
could  write  a  passable  letter ;  but  this  is  a  mistake.  A 
majority  of  our  pupils  are  only  able  to  do  what  has  been 
taught  to  them,  and  that  thoroughly.  It  is  not  enough 
to  say  to  pupils,  "  You  should  be  able  to  write  a  good 
letter ;"  you  should  make  sure  by  your  own  instruction 
that  they  can  write  a  good  letter. 
I.  MECHANICAL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  LETTER 
FIRST  ATTEMPTS 

"How  shall  I  teach  the  pupil  to  write  a  letter?" 
Try  the  following  method  : — Ask  him, — 

1.  What  are  you  going  to  write  about  ?     Get  the  real 
fact  or  incident,  and  have  him  write  it  down 

»  T  .  7  .      .  Subject. 

in  proper  form,  as  his  subject. 

2.  What  is  the  first  thing  you  wish  to  tell  about  ?  Tell 
him  to  write  that  down  by  itself,  as  he  wishes 

to  tell   it.     Proceed  thus,  with  the  several 
items,  2d,  3d,  and  so  on,  till  he  thinks  of  nothing  more. 
So  far  you   have   the   material.     Now  for  the   order. 
Ask  him, — 

3.  Which  of  these  really  ought  to  come  first  ?     If  he 
hits  on  the  right  one,  have  him  number  it  1. 

If  he  is  wrong,    point   out   the   right   one. 

Proceed  in  the  same  way  to  find  the  proper  second  item, 


204  LETTER-WRITIK& 

and  so  on  to  the  end.     This  settles  the  order.     Now 
consider  the  paragraphs.     Ask, — 

4.  Which  of  these  seem  to  belong  together  in  a  group  ? 

Have  them  numbered  a  second  time,  as  ^[  1, 
2,  etc.     Show  the  proper  method  for  spacing 
the  first  lines  of  paragraphs.     Attend  next  to  the  ex- 
pression.    Ask, — 

5.  What  long  words  can  be  changed  for  short,  simple 

words,  or  those  in  better  taste  ?    Have  the 
changes  made  by  interlining.     Next,  con- 
sider the  capitals  and  punctuation.     Ask, — 

6.  What  ungrammatical  words  or  expressions  do  you 

find  ?    Whatever  such  he  finds,  correct  by 
interlining.     Such  as  he  fails  to  find,  point 
out  and  have  corrected. 

7.  What  words  should  begin  with  capitals  ?    Have 
capitals.        these  marked. 

8.  Where  do  we  want  a  full  separation  .     Have  the 

period  inserted.     And  so  proceed,  as  other 

Punctuation.    r    .    .  -.    , 

points  are  needed. 

Now  require  a  complete  draught  to  be  made.  When 
this  is  done,  examine  and  correct  it  under  the  pupil's 
close  observation,  explaining  the  corrections  made. 
Lastly,  require  a  carefully  written  copy  according  to  the 
corrections. 

The  materials  for  letter-writing  should  be  of  good 
quality.     Good  materials  cost  only  a  trifle 
more  than  poor  ones.     The  paper  for  busi- 
ness correspondence  should  be  white  or  tinged  with 
blue.     The  size  of  the  paper  should  be  adapted  to  the 
size  of  the  envelope  to  be  used. 


THE   HEADING  205 

In  business  correspondence,  it  is  not  in  good  taste  to 
use  tinted  or  colored  paper. 

Avoid  the  use  of  all  fancy  inks,  and  use  simple  black  ; 
all  other  colors  fade. 

Do  not  use  envelopes  of  irregular  or  fanciful  shape, 
and  let  them  be  adapted  in  size  and  color,  to  the  paper. 
White  is  always  suitable. 

The  Heading 

The  Heading  includes  the  place  and  date.  If  your 
letter  is  to  consist  of  one  page  only,  the  prop- 
er position  for  the  Heading  is  on  the  first 
line  :  if  of  less  than  one  page,  proportionately  lower  ;  so 
that  the  space  at  the  bottom  of  the  page  may  be  equal 
to  the  space  at  the  top.  Begin  the  Heading  a  little  to 
the  left  of  the  middle  of  the  page  ;  and  if  it  is  too  long 
to  be  placed  within  the  limit  of  a  half  line,  let  it  be  ex- 
tended for  completion  to  the  next  line  below.  It  usually 
occupies  two  lines,  but  never  more  than  three  ;  when 
two  lines  are  used  the  second  should  begin  farther  to 
the  right  than  the  first.  Business  letters  should  always 
be  dated  at  the  top  ;  some  place  the  date  at  the  bottom, 
but  this  form  is  used  more  generally  in  social  correspond- 
ence. When  placed  at  the  bottom  it  must  be  near  the 
left  edge  of  the  paper,  one  line  below  the  signature. 
(Model  5.) 

The  heading  of  a  letter  should  be  self-explaining. 
The  name  of  the  State  and  County  should  be 
expressed,  unless  the  letter  is  addressed  to  a 
very  large  city,  like  New  York  or  Boston.     If  the  letter 
is  written  in  a  city  the  street  and  number  should  be  ex- 
pressed.    The  Heading  should  be  full  and  complete,  so 


206  LETTER-WRITING 

that  when  a  person  answers  the  message,  he  may  know 
where  to  send. 

The  date  includes  the  month,  day  of  the  month,  and 

the  year  ;  if  letters  are  used  after  the  figures, 

let  them  be  placed  on  a  line  with  the  figures, 

and  not  a  little  above  the  line.     The  best  usage  requires 

cardinal  numbers  rather  than  ordinal — Dec.  10,  not 

Dec.  10th. 

The  parts  of  the  Heading  should  be  separated  by  com- 
mas, and  a  period  should  be  placed  at  the  close 
of  the  Heading  and  after  abbreviations.    The 
ordinal  adjectives  1st,  5th,  27th,  are  not  abbreviations, 
and  they  should  be  followed  by  a  comma.     The  Head- 
ing is  an  abridged  form  of  sentence,   composed    of 
phrases,  and  phrases  are  usually  set  off  by  commas. 
The  teacher  should  write  or  have  written  on  the  board 
the  correct  form  of  the  heading  of  a  letter, 
>ns*    calling  attention  to  the  position  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  parts,  capital  letters,    arjd  punctuation. 
He  should  require  the  pupils  to  copy  the  correct  form 
on  their  slates,  spell  the  words,  and  give  the  correct  ar- 
rangement and  position  of  all  the  parts. 

Various  Headings  should  be  given  by  the  teacher  un- 
til the  pupils  are  thoroughly  familiar  with  them.  A 
few  lessons  methodically  given,  will  SECURE  MASTERY. 

MODEL  1 
Albany,  New  York, 

June  10,  1877. 


MODEL  2 
Amsterdam, 

Montgomery  Co.,  N.  Y., 

June  11,  1880, 


THE  INTRODUCTION  201 

MODEL  3 
Vassar  College, 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y., 

March  21,  1880. 


MODEL  4 
1109  East  Genesee  St.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y., 

Tuesday,  Dec.  10,  1889. 


MODEL  5 
221  Fifth  Avenue, 

Chicago,  III,  Aug.  30,  1893. 


The  Introduction 

The  name  of  the  person  to  be  addressed  should  be 
given  on  the  line  below  the  Heading,  at  the 
right  and  near  the  marginal  line.     It  may 
occupy  one,  two,  or  three  lines.     The  first  line  of  the 
address  should  contain  the  name  and  title  alone ;  it 
should  begin  even  with  all  the  lines  of  the  page,  exceDt 
the  Heading  and  those  that  commence  paragraphs. 

The  American  form  of  correspondence  places  the 
address  before  the  salutation,  except  in  letters  of  an 
official  character ;  then  it  is  placed  at  the  close  of  the 
letter,  at  the  left  of  the  signature  ;  this  corresponds 
with  the  English  style. 

The  direction  should  be  as  full  in  the  address  as  in 
the  Heading.     The  letter  should  be  self-ex- 
plaining ;    it   should   contain   not   only  the 
name  and  residence  of  the  writer,  but  also  the  name 
and  residence  of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  written 


208  LETTER-WRITING 

The  name  should  be  written  in  full ;  for  example,  we 
write  to  J.  C.  Knox,  Colorado  Springs,  Col- 
orado ;  as  it  stands  now  it  may  mean  James 
C.  Knox  or  Jennie  C.  Knox.  It  is  better,  unless  the 
party  is  well  known,  to  write  the  full  Christian  name, 
and  not  the  initials  of  the  name.  Too  much  pains  cannot 
be  taken  in  the  address  of  letters  and  the  superscription 
of  envelopes.  In  New  York  city  there  are  hundreds  of 
persons  by  the  name  of  John  Smith  ;  in  order  to  avoid 
confusion  and  prevent  the  profanity  of  mail  carriers,  it 
would  be  better  for  all  correspondents  to  write  the  full 
name,  the  proper  title  and  the  name  and  the  number  of 
the  street. 

The  common  titles  are  Mr.,  Mrs.,  Miss,  and  Esq.     Mr. 
is  an  abbreviation  of  Mister  ;  Mrs.  is  an  ab- 

Title 

breviation  of  Mistress,  but  pronounced 
Missis,  which  is  written  Mrs.;  Miss  is  not  considered 
an  abbreviation,  but  a  contraction  from  the  word 
Mistress ;  Esq.  is  an  abbreviation  of  Esquire. 

The  following  will  illustrate  the  various  titles  fixed 
Titles.  by  custom. 

To  the  King's  Most  Excellent  Majesty. 

To  the  Queen's  Most  Excellent  Majesty. 

To  his  Grace  the  Duke  of  Argyle. 

To  the  Most  Noble  the  Marquis  of  Westminster, 

To  the  Eight  Honorable  the  Earl  of  Derby. 

His  Excellency  Grover  Cleveland,  President  of  the 
United  States. 

The  title  of  His  Excellency  is  also  applied  to  the 
Governor  of  any  State,  or  to  a  Foreign  Minister. 

Honorable  Adlai  Stevenson,  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States. 


THE   INTBODUCTIOtf  209 

The  title  of  Honorable  is  also  applied  to  Senators  and 
Representatives  of  the  United  States,  Governors  of  a 
State,  State  Senators  and  Representatives,  Judges, 
Mayors,  and  Heads  of  Executive  Departments  of  the 
General  Government. 

The  term  Esquire  is  applied  very  indiscriminately. 
Properly  it  is  limited  to  members  of  the  legal  profes- 
sion, or  to  non-professional  gentlemen  of  note  and  dis- 
tinction. 

Two  titles  of  the  same  class  should  not  be  applied  to 
the  same  name.  Thus  in  addressing  John  Roe,  do  not 
say  Mr.  John  Roe,  Esq.;  though  you  may  say  Mr.  John 
Roe,  or  John  Roe,  Esq. 

If  the  profession  of  the  person  addressed  be  known, 
the  professional  title  should  always  be  used.  If  a  per- 
son be  entitled  to  two  titles,  the  higher  is  given  ;  if  both 
are  used,  the  lower  first,  followed  by  the  higher. 

Titles  of  respect  are  usually  placed  before  the  name ; 
as  Mr.,  Hon.)  Rev.,  Dr.,  and  military  titles. 

Professional  titles  sometimes  precede,  and  sometimes 
follow  the  name.  Dr.  Fred  Childs  or  Fred  Childs,  M.  D. ; 
Prof.  Moses  True  Brown,  or  Moses  True  Brown,  A.  M. 

All  titles  should  be  written  plainly  and  in  full. 

One  title  should  not  include  another,  as  Dr.  Graham 
B.  Bristol,  M.  D.  It  is  allowable  in  writing  to  a  clergy- 
man whose  surname  alone  is  known  to  us,  to  write 
Rev.  Mr.  Smith,  the  Mr.  being  in  this  case  regarded  as 
a  substitute  for  the  Christian  name.  A  common  but 
barbarous  error  is  to  write  "  Rev.  Smith. " 

Two  literary,  or  professional  titles  may  be  added  to 
one  name;  thus,  Prof.  Leroy  Cooley,  A.  M.;  Rev.  Dr. 
Shaw ;  Rev.  M.  B.  Anderson,  D.D.,  LL.  D. 


210  LETTER-WEITING 

The  wife  of  a  professional  man  may  be  addressed, 
using  the  following  title,  as  Mrs.  Dr.  Brown,  Mrs.  Sec- 
retary Bowen.  It  is  a  frequent  custom  to  address  the 
wife  in  her  own  name,  as,  Mrs.  Julia  Ward  Howe. 
This  is  required  in  business  transactions. 

The  salutation  should  never  be  omitted  ;  it  expresses 
politeness,  respect,  or  affection.  The  terms 

Salutation.  ,          ,  .  ., .  «--•,«,.• 

employed  in  writing  to  a  man  are  Sir,  Dear 
Sir,  My  dear  Sir. 

The  word  Dear  implies  that  the  parties  are  acquainted  ; 
My  dear  Sir  suggests  intimacy  or  friendship. 

In  addressing  a  married  woman,  the  following  form 
is  usual,  including  the  title  and  Christian  name  of  the 
husband  : 

Mrs.  Dr.  J.  J.  Anderson, 

105  Madison  Avenue, 

Albany,  N.  Y. 

Madam, — 

In  the  use  of  salutations,  it  is  better  to  be  too  formal 
Avoid  than  too  familiar.  To  use  a  term  of  affec- 

famiiiarity.  £jon  wnen  no  endearment  exists  between  the 
parties,  is  highly  improper.  It  is  assuming  undue 
familiarity,  not  warrantable  in  business  correspondence. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  friendly  correspondence  once 
But  do  not  established  must  not  relapse  into  mere 
be  capricious,  formalities,  unless  a  decided  quarrel  and 
separation  have  taken  place.  Small  differences  or  dis- 
agreements should  make  no  change  in  your  modes  of 
address  and  expression.  You  may  some  day  have  to 
oppose  your  friend  at  a  caucus  meeting,  or  in  a  warm 
discussion  on  religion  or  politics ;  yet  his  aversion  to 
your  views,  and  your  impetuous  opposition  to  his,  are 


THE   INTRODUCTION  211 

not  to  prevent  you  writing  "My  dear  Harry  "9  or  "  My 
dear  Tompkins",  or  "My  dear  Sir",  as  you  did  before 
the  difference  broke  out.  Depend  upon  it  there  is 
nothing  more  contemptible  than  to  taint  the  amenities 
of  social  life  with  exhibitions  of  temper  or  vexation, 
or  to  suffer  the  pen  to  express  unfriendly  sentiments  or 
greetings  of  a  suddenly  cool  character,  because  some 
trifling  difference  has  arisen  between  yourself  and  your 
friend. 

Here  it  should  be  hinted  that  whatever  mode  you 
adopt  in  addressing  a  person,  is  to  be  preserved  in 
future  correspondence,  if  not  in  exactly  the  same  words, 
at  least  the  same  in  purport ;  you  must  not  go  back  ex- 
cept for  a  special  reason,  but  you  may  go  forward  with 
a  proper  grace  as  intimacy  ripens,  and  increase  the 
warmth  of  your  congratulations. 

We  remember  an  incident  which  may  be  mentioned 
in  illustration  of  this.  A  gentleman  had  been  for  many 
years  on  terms  of  intimate  friendship  with  his  tailor, 
and  the  correspondence  between  them,  whether  of  a 
friendly  or  a  business  nature,  had  always  a  cordial  tone 
pervading  it,  until  on  one  occasion  the  friendship  was 
slightly  interrupted.  In  fact,  the  gentleman  was  a  little 
in  arrear  as  to  the  settlement  of  his  friend's  account, 
and  the  latter  sent  a  short  and  brusque  letter,  as  follows  : 
-Sir, 

"I  am  disappointed  in  not  having  received  the  amount  of  my 
bill  as  promised  by  you  in  your  last  ;  may  I  beg  the  favor  of  a 
speedy  settlement  ?  Yours  obediently, 

SIMON  SLOWSTITCH." 

To  this  an  answer  was  returned  as  follows  : 
' '  My  dear  Slowstitch, 

' '  Last  time  you  wrote  I  owed  you  nothing,  and  you  addressed 
me  as  your  'Dear  Nonplus';  but  since  I  have  unfortunately 


212  LETTER-WRITING 

failed  to  meet  your  demand,  according  to  my  own  promise,  you 
reduce  me  to  a  mere  '  Sir ',  upon  your  list  of  patrons.  Do  you 
intend  to  terminate  a  friendship  of  ten  years  in  this  way,  or  do 
you  propose  resuming  the  '  Dear  Nonplus ',  with  a  view  to  be 
mine  '  faithfully ',  when  the  account  is  settled  (as  it  will  be  to- 
morrow), remaining  in  the  meanwhile  mine  '  obediently  ',  only  ? 
Will  you  allow  me  to  suggest  that  expressions  of  friendship  are 
open  to  question,  both  as  to  their  value  and  their  sincerity,  when 
they  are  made  to  depend  on  business  relations  for  their  respective 
amounts  of  warmth  or  coldness  which  shall  be  infused  into  them. 
To  be  consistent,  I  shall  have  to  adopt  a  cringing  tone  when  I 
owe  you  money,  and  a  tone  of  pompous  patronage  the  moment  I 
have  paid  it ;  that  is,  if  any  correspondence  should  continue  be- 
tween yourself  and  Yours  very  truly, 

STEPHEN  NONPLUS." 

Among  the  forms  of  address  for  friendly,  complimen- 
tary and  semi-business  letters,  we  have  the  formal  "  Dear 
Sir  "  for  use  on  all  occasions.  The  solicitor  so  addresses 
his  client,  the  client  his  solicitor,  the  patient  his  physi- 
cian, the  editor  his  contributor,  and,  indeed,  any  man 
of  gentlemanly  pretentions,  addressing  another  to  whom 
he  has  already  been  introduced,  or  with  whom  he  has 
already  corresponded.  In  correspondence  of  a  profes- 
sional nature,  where  both  parties  are  strangers,  it  would 
always  be  well  to  commence  with  the  simple  "Sir",  or 
"  Madam  ",  and  in  the  second  or  third  letter  adopt  the 
more  agreeable  "Dear  Sir",  or  "Dear  Madam".  A 
little  enhancement  of  the  gentlemanly  or  ladylike  feel- 
ing is  to  be  found  in  "My  dear  Sir",  or  f '  My  dear 
Madam ",  which  may  by  degrees,  as  the  parties  know 
and  respect  each  other  more  sincerely,  take  a  very 
friendly  and  now  fashionable  form  of  "  My  dear  Mr. 
Swallowwing",  "My  dear  Mrs.  Pettitoe",  or  "  My  dear 
Miss  Nightingale ".  The  latter  form  is  that  most  in 


THE 

use  at  the  present  day  in  polite  society,  between  persons 
who  have  met  at  least  once,  and  who  are  on  terms  of 
acquaintance  in  which  business  has  no  part. 

When  folks  begin  to  say  "  My  dear  Higginbottom  ", 
"  My  dear  old  boy  ",  and  "  My  dear  fellow  ",  all  strict 
rules  of  etiquette  are  at  an  end,  and  good  sense  gives  a 
proper  form  to  the  free  expression  of  mutual  friendship. 

The  salutation  used  in   addressing  a  woman,  either 
married  or  single,  is  Madam,  Dear  Madam,  or    In  writing 
My  dear  Madam.     In  writing  to  a  young    to  women, 
unmarried  lady,  it  is  customary  to  omit  the  salutation 
and  address  her  with  the  title  prefixed  to  her  surname, 
with  the  address  at  the  bottom  of  the  letter,  at  the  left. 
(Model  9.) 

J.  Willis  Westlake  says,  "In  writing  to  a  lady  wno 
is  a  stranger  or  mere  acquaintance,  persons 
often  feel  a  delicacy,  (unnecessarily  so,  it 
seems  to  us,)  about  saying  ( Dear  Miss  Blank ',  or  f  Dear 
Madam \  Dear  does  not  mean  any  more  in  'Dear 
Miss',  than  it  does  in  'Dear  Sir*.  Surely  no  lady 
would  hesitate  to  use  the  latter  form  of  address  in  writ- 
ing to  a  gentleman  of  her  acquaintance  ;  and  the  gen- 
tleman would  be  a  fool  to  suppose  she  intended  to  make 
love  to  him  by  so  doing.  When  Miss  or  Dear  Miss  is 
used  in  the  introduction  it  must  be  followed  by  the 
lady's  name  ;  as  '  Miss  Flora  May ',  '  Dear  Miss  Barnes '." 

We  should  use  the  full  form  in  the  salutation ;  as 
Gentlemen,  not  Gents;  Sir,  not  Sr.;  Dear,  not  Dr. 

The  salutation  should  begin  at  the  same   distance 
from  the  marginal  line  as  the  paragraphs. 
If  the  address  is  omitted  at  the  beginning  of 
the  letter,  the  salutation  should  be  placed  on  the  first 


214 

line  below  the  heading,  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  mar- 
gin, so  that  the  places  of  beginning  the  paragraphs  may 
be  uniform,  and  correspond  to  the  salutation.  (Model  11.) 

Place  a  period  at  the  end  of  the  address.     The  ad- 
dress and  the  salutation  are  not  in  the  same 

Punctuation.  , .      ,  ,,          ,  -,  ,     .        .      ,, 

grammatical  person,  the  address  being  in  the 
third  person,  and  the  salutation  in  the  second. 

As  to  the  punctuation  mark  after  the  salutation,  the 
best  authorities  use  a  comma  when  the  body  of  the  let- 
ter begins  one  line  below  the  salutation  (Models  7,  10), 
and  a  comma  and  a  dash  when  the  body  of  the  letter 
begins  on  the  same  line  as  the  salutation  (Model  8).  In 
the  English  form  of  letter-writing,  the  salutation, 
simply,  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  body  of  the 
letter,  and  the  address  at  the  close  of  the  letter,  a  little 
at  the  left.  (Models  9,  11,  12.) 

Always  preserve  an  even  margin  in  letters,  and  in  all 

forms  of  manuscript.     The  French  preserve 

two  margins,  one  at  the  left,  and  one  at  the 

right ;  this  adds  to  the  appearance  of  the  letter,  making 

it  correspond  with  the  printed  page.     The  Introduction 

to  social  and  miscellaneous  letters  is  in  form  the  same 

as  to  business  letters. 

All  of  the  above  points  in  the  Introduction  of  a  letter, 
should  be  neatly  written  on  the  board.    The 
>ns'    teacher  should  call  attention  to  each  part, 
its  exact  form  and  place. 

He  should  require  the  pupils  to  copy  the  correct  form 
on  their  slates  ;  and  upon  review,  require  them  to  spell 
the  words,  give  correct  position  and  arrangement  of  all 
the  parts,  and  punctuate  the  introduction  correctly. 


THE  IKTHODUCTIOK  215 

At  this  point  in  the  instruction  review  the  Heading  and 
the  Introduction  together. 

It  is  delightful  to  be  able  to  write  a  good  letter,  and 
it  is  a  pleasure  to  read  one.  In  this  as  in  every  other 
accomplishment  "practice  makes  perfect,"  and  pupils 
should  at  once  set  to  work  with  a  determination  to  con- 
quer the  difficulties  of  writing. 

MODEL  6 
Prang  Educational  Co., 

646  Washington  St., 

Boston,  Mass. 
Gentlemen, — I  have  received,  etc., 


MODEL  7 
Messrs.  Bangs  &  Co., 

737  Broadway, 

New  York,  N.  T. 
Dear  Sirs, 

Your  favor,  etc. 


MODEL  8 
/.  Edward  Lyon, 

lanisteo,  N.  Y. 

Respected  Friend, — / 
have  the  honor,  etc. 

MODEL  9 

Miss  Griffin, 

We  are  in  receipt  of 
yours,  etc. 

Miss  Ida  L.  Griffin, 

Mexico,  N.  Y. 


216  LETTER-WRITING 

MODEL  10 
Mrs.  Daniel  Keating, 

Canastota,  N.  Y. 
Dear  Madam, 

Your  kind  favor,  etc. 


MODEL  11 
Dear  Sir, — 

Yours  was  received,  etc. 
8.  H.  Albro,  Ph.D., 

Mansfield, 
Pa. 


MODEL  12 
Gentlemen, 

Send  me  10  gallons  Hornstone  Slating,  etc. 
Scrantom  &  Wetmore, 

RocJiester, 

N.  T. 

The  Body  of  the  Letter. 

The  body  of  the  letter  is  the  message  itself,  exclusive 
of  the  Heading,  Introduction,  and  Conclusion. 

The  body  of  the  letter  may  begin  directly  after  the 
salutation,    and   on   the  same  line  (Models 
6,  8);  or  on  the  next  line  below,  a  little  to 
the  right  of  the  salutation  (Models  7,  9-12).     The  salu- 
tation should  never  be  placed  so  far  to  the  right  of  the 
sheet  of  paper,  as  to  leave   room  for  only  one  or  two 
words  after  it. 

The  paragraph  indicates  a  new  subject,  and  begins  on 

a  new  line,  which  begins  farther  to  the  right 

e'  than  other  lines.     The  first  word  of  the  first 


THE  COHCLUSIOK  217 

paragraph  commences  after  the  salutation  ;  the  first  word 
of  the  second  paragraph  should  fall  directly  under  the 
salutation,    and   so  on   with  the  remaining 
paragraphs.      All  paragraphs  should   begin 
at  the  same  distance  from  the  marginal  line,  preserving 
uniformity  in  the  mechanical  structure  of  the  letter. 

The  Conclusion 

The  conclusion  of  a  letter  is  the  part  added  to  the 
body  of  the  letter.     It  includes  the  closing 
compliments,  and  should  begin  a  little  to  the 
right,  but  near  the   middle  of  the  first  line  below  the 
body  of  the  letter,  about  the   same  distance  from  the 
marginal  line  as  the  heading.     The  compliments  may 
be  broken  into  two  lines,  but  it  is  not  necessary.     If 
composed  of  two  lines,  the  second  should  begin  a  little 
to  the  right  of  the  first,  both  lines  beginning  with  a 
capital  letter. 

Social  letters  admit  of  many  forms  of  closing  : 

Your  friend  ;  Your  sincere  friend ;  Yours  with  esteem ; 
Faithfully  yours  ;  Yours  heartily  and  affectionately  ; 
Most  gratefully  and  faithfully  yours  ;  Yours  very  sin- 
cerely ;  Your  loving  daughter  ;  Your  affectionate  father  ; 
Ever  your  affectionate  friend  ;  etc. 

Common  business  forms  are  Yours  truly  ;  Yours  re- 
spectfully ;  Yours  very  truly  ;  Yours. 

The  complimentary  closing  should  be  neither  too 
familiar,  nor  too  formal.  It  should  have 

.        . ,  ,     .    . .  ,  Be  consistent. 

some  reference   to   the   salutation  used,  so 
that  it  may  not  seem  inconsistent.     If  the  salutation 
used  be  "My  dear  friend",  do  not  close  with  "Your 
friend"* — better  "  Truly  yours". 


In  writing  the  signature,  begin  a  little  at  the  right  of 
the  complimentary  close,  on  the  next  line 
below.  A  letter  should  always  be  signed  in 
a  legible  hand,  and  with  accuracy,  symmetry,  uniform- 
ity and  neatness.  The  full  name  should  be  written. 
Thousands  of  letters  are  dropped  into  the  post-offices 
having  no  name  subscribed.  It  is  well  to  write  the 
address  under  the  signature  if  you  wish  an  answer  to 
your  letter  ;  particularly  if  your  letter  is  mailed  at  some 
other  point  than  your  regular  residence. 

If  the  writer  is  a  woman,  she  should,  in  writing  to  a 
women's  stranger,  so  sign  her  name  as  to  indicate 
signatures.  whether  she  is  married  or  single. 

Suppose  a  letter  should  be  written  by  Miss  Morris,  for 
example,  and  signed  J.  E.  Morris, — how  is  one  to  know 
whether  the  letter  was  written  by  a  man  or  a  woman  ; 
and  the  person  receiving  the  letter, — how  should  he 
address  it  ?  He  does  not  know  whether  to  address  it  to 
Mr.,  Miss,  or  Mrs.  J.  E.  Morris.  The  writer  is  thus 
placed  in  a  dilemma  ;  he  must  either  address  the  letter 
without  using  any  title,  or  risk  making  a  mistake. 

If  the  writer  is  single  and  unknown  let  her  write  her 
first  name  in  full ;  or  if  she  is  married,  or  a  widow, 
let  her  prefix  Mrs.,  in  parenthesis,  as  shown  on  the  fol- 
lowing page.  Or  she  may  sign  her  name  as  she  chooses, 
but  give  her  full  address  at  the  left  and  below.  A  comma 
should  be  placed  after  the  complimentary  close,  and  a 
period  after  the  signature. 

MODEL  13 — SOCIAL  FORM 
/  remain  as  ever. 

Yours  sincerely, 

Henry  R.  Sanford. 


THE  COKCLtfSIOK 

MODEL  14 — BUSINESS  FORM 

/  am,  gentlemen, 

Yours  respectfully, 

Augustus  S.  Downing. 


MODEL  15 — OFFICIAL  FORMS 
/  have  the  honor  to  be,  Sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

Isaac  H.  Stout. 


I  have  the  honor  to  be,  Sir, 

Your  most  obedient  servant, 

A.  0.  McLachlan. 


lam,  Sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

Welland  Hendrick. 

Very  respectfully, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

(Mrs.)  B.  Ellen  Burke. 


Neatly  folding  a  letter  will  add  very  much  to  its 
appearance.  This  is  a  simple  thing  but  it 

£      M  v  i  Folding. 

should  be  learned. 

For  note  paper  nearly  as  wide  as  the  envelope  is  long, 
fold  up  the  bottom  so  that  it  shall  be  nearly  the  width 
of  the  envelope,  turn  down  the  top  in  the  same  manner, 
and  press  the  folds  neatly  together. 

For  paper  of  letter  size,  turn  the  bottom  edge  up  so 
that  it  shall  be  nearly  equal  to  the  length  of  the  en- 
velope ;  then  proceed  in  the  same  manner  as  above. 


220  LETTER-WRITIM 

If  the  letter  is  to  be  enclosed  in  an  official  envelope, 
turn  up  the  lower  edge  to  the  width  of  the  envelope, 
and  fold  the  top  down  over  it. 


MODEL  16 — SOCIAL  LETTER 

Albany,  Jan.  19,  1894. 
My  dear  Sister, 

Your  letter  makes  me  perfectly  happy.  I  have 
so  much  to  tell  you,  and  so  much  to  hear  from  you,  too 
(0,  you  sly  puss,  a  little  bird  has  told  me  all  about 
him!),  that  I  can  hardly  wait  for  Wednesday  and  three 
o'clock.  You  will  see  my  face  first  of  all  at  the  depot, 
and  don't  let  the  train  be  late. 
Till  then,  and  always, 

Your  loving  sister, 

Mary  B.  Davis. 
Miss  Eunice  Davis, 

Granger  Place  School, 

Canandaigua,  N.  F. 


MODEL  17 — BUSINESS  LETTER 

406  So.  Franklin  St., 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  12,  1894. 
Sup't  M.  W.  Scott, 

Binghamton,  N.  Y. 

Sir, — Yours  of  Feb.  10  is  duly  received.  I  am  glad 
to  receive  your  order,  and  will  ship  the  goods  to  you  by 
the  first  of  next  week.  Trusting  they  will  prove  satis- 
factory, lam, 

Yours  very  respectfully, 

Wm.  A.   TuttU. 


THE    SUPERSCRIPTION  221 

Superscription 

We  have  finished  the  letter  and  are  now  ready  to 
superscribe  it.  This  Superscription  is  written  on  the 
outside  of  the  envelope.  It  consists  of  the  name  and 
title,  post-office,  county  and  State. 

Every  element  of  the  Superscription  should  be  on  a 
separate  line.     The  first  line,  consisting  of 
the  name  and  title,  should  begin  below  and 
at  the  left  of  the  centre  ;  the  second  should  begin  a  lit- 
tle further  to  the  right ;  the  third  a  little  further  to  the 
right  than  the  second,  and  so  on. 

The  spaces  between  the  lines  and  the  space  below  the 
last  should  be  equal. 

Great  pains  should  be  taken  in  writing  the  Super- 
scription, and  the  full  form  should  always  be  used. 
Each  part  should  be  written  legibly.  It  is  always  the 
safer  way  to  express  the  name  of  the  county,  unless  the 
letter  is  directed  to  a  large  city. 

Place  a  period  after  abbreviations ;  when  the  abbre- 
viation is  at  the  end  of  a  line,  place  a  comma 

,    , .  ,  •     -i      '   j  i         i  Punctuation. 

after  each  line,  and  a  period  at  the  close. 

A  postage-stamp  should  immediately  be  placed  upon 
the  envelope,  lest  it  be  forgotten.     It  should    postage. 
occupy  the  upper  right-hand  corner,  about    stamp. 
a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  from  the  upper  and  from  the 
right  edges.     Pains  should  be  taken  to  put  it  on  neatly. 
It  is  better  to  moisten  the  envelope  than  the  postage- 
stamp,  as  the  latter  often  becomes  too  wet  if  applied  to 
the  tongue,  and  falls  off  the  envelope. 


222  LETTER- WRITING 

MODEL  18 

Mr.  A.  C.  McLachlan, 
Conductor  of  Institutes, 
Seneca  Falls, 

New  York. 
Seneca  Co. 


MODEL  19 

Mrs.  Anna  Randall- Diehl, 
54  W.  55th  St. 

New  York,  N.  Y. 


MODEL  20 
Hon.  N.  A.   Calkins, 

East  88th  St. 

New  York,  N.  Y. 


MODEL  21 
Gardner  Fuller,  A.  M., 

Batavia, 

Genesee  Co., 
New  York. 


REVIEW 

1.  Develop  every  part  of  the  letter. 

2.  Illustrate  and  explain  each  part  on  the  board. 

3.  Require  pupils  to  copy  the  correct  form. 

4.  Require  pupils  to  reproduce  each  part. 

5.  Carefully  examine  the  pupiPs  work. 

6.  After  all  the  parts  of  the  structure  of  a  letter  have 
been  taught  thoroughly,  and  the  pupils  have  been  drilled 


GEHERAL  ANALYSIS 


223 


sufficiently,  require  them  to  reproduce  the  whole  cor- 
rectly. 

7.  Teach  them  how  to  place  the  superscription  upon 
the  envelope,  and  require  them  to  hand  in  a  letter 
properly  written,  folded,  inserted,  and  superscribed. 

REVIEW 

a.  Domestic. 

b.  Introductory,  etc. 

a.  Personal. 

b.  Official. 


I.    Private.  -< 


\tion 
of  Letters. 


1.   Social. 


3.   Miscellaneous. 


A.  Materials. 


B.  Heading^. 


4.   Postal  Cards. 

II.  Public  or  Open. 

STRUCTURE  OF  LETTERS 

(  a.   Size. 

1.  Paper.        -j  b.    Quality. 

( c.    Color. 

2.  Ink-Color. 

3.  Envelopes,    j  ^' 

^4.    Pen. 

I.   Position  and  Arrangement. 

(  1.  -Post  Office. 

1.  Place.  J  2'   Cour?t/  or 
Uity. 

II.   P'ts.   <{ 

(  1.  Month. 

[2.  Date.    •{  2.  Day  of  the  Month. 

(3.  Year. 

III.  Punctuation. 

I.   Position  and  Arrangement. 


;NO. 

1   St. 


0.  Introduction.  « 


II.    Parts. 


1.   Addressi 


1.   Name  and 

2.   Salutation.    |3    Direction. 

III.  Punctuation.          (  1.   Business. 

IV.  Model.  j        -J  2.   Social  and  Miscel- 

laneous. 


224:  LETTER-WRITING 

{I.    Substance. 
II.    The  Margin. 
III.    Paragraphing. 
I.   Position  and  Arrangements. 


E.    Conclusion. 


II.    Parts.  V  2.   Signature. 


Complimentary  Close 


Address. 
III.    Punctuation. 


F.  Folding. 

I.   Position  and  Arrangement. 

( 1.   Name  and  Title. 

G.  Superscrip-  II.   Parts. -j  M     Post  Office. 

tion.  (  2.    Direction.  J  3    County. 

III.   Punctuation.  (  3.    State. 

.  IV.   Legibility. 

tf.  Postage  Stamps,    j  £  ^eput  on. 

Specific  Hints 

On  the  subject  of  penmanship,  M.  Ernest  Legouve 
careful  tells  nis  grand-daughter  :  "  The  people  who 

penmanship.  praise  yOU  to  your  face  and  laugh  at  you 
behind  your  back,  say,  '  Ah  !  all  clever  people  write 
badly.'  Answer  by  showing  as  I  have  shown  you  a 
hundred  times,  letters  of  Guizot,  Mignet,  and  Alexan- 
der Dumas  the  elder,  which  are  models  of  caligraphy. 
Write  well,  my  child,  write  well !  Pretty  writing  in  a 
woman  is  like  tasteful  dressing,  a  pleasing  physiognomy, 
or  a  sweet  voice. " 

Careless  writers  who  correct  their  letters  often  cross 
interlining  ou^  an<^  interline  until  the  writing  is  illegi- 
and  crowding.  bie.  This  is  inexcusable.  Nor  should  writ- 
ing be  crowded.  The  postal-card  on  the  opposite  page 
was  written  by  one  of  the  most  unselfish  philanthropists 


A   POSTAL-CAKD   FROM   MISS   PEABODY  225 


America   lias    known,   yet  her  penmanship   cost  her 
friends  much  unnecessary  labor. 

Copy  and  re-copy  until  every  part  of  the  letter  pleases 


226  LETTER-WRITING 

the  eye.     An  hour  or  two  devoted  to  careful  copying 
will  lead  to  habits  of  accuracy. 

Tautology  is  quite  common  with  inexperienced  writers; 
when  a  fact  has  been  stated  once, — the  point 
made  distinctly  and  clearly, — repetition  only 
weakens  and  confuses. 

Sidney  Smith  once  remarked  :  "  After  you  have  writ- 
ten an  article,  take  your  pen  and  strike  out  half  the 
words,  and  you  will  be  surprised  to  see  how  much 
stronger  it  is." 

Never  allow  a  blot  to  be  seen  in  your  letters ;  it  is 
Blots.  slovenly. 

Avoid  nourishing  in  letter  writing  ;  it  is  indicative  of 
dash  and  display.     It  goes   with  an  Alaska 
diamond  pin,  alligator  boots,  hair  parted  in 
the  middle,  and  a  slim  cane. 

If  it  is  necessary  to  write  more  matter  than  can  be 

properly  placed  on  the  pages  of  a  letter,  use 

another   sheet   of  paper.     There  is  seldom 

excuse  for  writing  on  the  margins  of  the  sheet  and  over 

the  body  of  the  letter. 

In  reading,  certain  words  are  emphatic,  and  when 
properly  emphasized  increase  the  intensity 

Underscoring.      .   .,       .,  ,  , 

of  the  thought. 

In  writing  it  sometimes  adds  force  to  the  expression 
to  underline  certain  words ;  but  indiscriminate  under- 
lining is  as  ineffective  as  it  is  disagreeable. 

A  postscript  is  something  added  to  a  letter  after  it  is 
properly  finished,  and  is  generally  unneces- 

Postscripts.  J 

sary. 

When  the  writer  has  received  new  information  after 
the  letter  is  finished,  it  may  then  be  added.  It  is  not 


LITERARY    STYLE  227 

best  to  get  into  the  habit  of  appending  postscripts.  It 
is  especially  rude  to  consign  to  a  postscript  any  word  of 
compliment  or  affection,  as  an  afterthought. 

The  character  &  may  be  used  between  the  surnames 
of  a  business  firm  or  between  the  initial  let- 

.    ™     .    , .  i      ,  i      .,    &  for  "and". 

ters  of   Christian  names ;    but  as  a  rule  it 

should  not  be  employed  to  take  the  place  of  the  word 

for  which  it  stands 

Figures  are  used  for  dates,  time  of  day,  rates,  quanti- 
ties, prices,  aggregate  amounts,  etc.     In  com- 
mercial paper  it  is  best  to  use  both  figures 
and  words. 

Business  letters  are  generally  preserved,  and  as  lead 
pencil  marks  are  easily  blurred  or  erased,  it 
is  not  business-like  to  use  the  lead  pencil  in 
correspondence. 

It  would  be  a  great  favor  to  editors  and  printers, 
should  those  who  write  for  the  press  observe  Letters  for 
the  following  rules.  They  are  reasonable,  newspapers, 
and  correspondents  will  regard  them  as  such .  1.  Write 
with  black  ink,  on  white  paper,  wide  ruled.  2.  Make 
the  pages  small,  one-fourth  that  of  a  foolscap  sheet.  3. 
Leave  the  second  page  of  each  leaf  blank.  4.  Give  to 
the  written  page  an  ample  margin  all  around.  5.  Num- 
ber the  pages  in  the  order  of  their  succession.  6.  Write 
in  a  plain,  bold  hand,  without  respect  to  beauty.  7. 
Use  no  abbreviations  which  are  not  to  appear  in  print. 
8.  Punctuate  the  manuscript  as  it  should  be  printed. 
II.  THE  STYLE  OF  THE  LETTER 

Use  the  simplest  terms.     Fine  words  are  avoided  by 
educated  people.     Pompous  expression  and    simpielan. 
parade  of  language  betoken  lack  of  culture.    gua#e- 
Simplicity  should  characterize  all  correspondence. 


228  LETTER-WRITING 

The  words  we  use  are  an  index  to  the  mind  and 

heart.     Your  letter   will   be   accepted   as  a 

type  of  your  mind   and  an   index  of  your 

thoughts.     Slang  phrases  are  inconsistent  with  dignity 

of  thought,  word  or  deed.     And  be  sure  your  language 

is  chaste.     Pure  words  show  a  pure  heart. 

It  is  not  considered  good  taste  to  use  foreign  words, 
Foreign  unless  necessity  requires  them.  It  is  better 
words.  to  use  pure  English. 

If  people  would  plainly  say  what  they  think,  without 
roundabout  phases,  and  without  being  haunted  at  every 
step  with  the  thought  of  saying  fine  things,  and  the 
necessity  of  moving  on  stilts  in  order  to  show  style, 
they  would  be  more  interesting  and  effective. 

William  CuJlen  Bryant  once  made  the  following  sen- 
Bryant's  sible  remarks  to  a  young  man  who  had 
advice.  offered  an  article  for  the  New  York  Evening 

Post. 

My  young  friend,  I  observe  that  you  have  used  several  French 
expressions  in  your  letter.  I  think  if  you  will  study  the  English 
language,  that  you  will  find  it  capable  of  expressing  all  the  ideas 
that  you  may  have.  I  have  always  found  it  so,  and  in  all  that  I 
have  written  I  do  not  recall  an  instance  where  I  was  tempted  to 
use  a  foreign  word,  but  that,  on  searching,  I  have  found  a  better 
one  in  my  own  language. 

Be  simple,  unaffected ;  be  honest  in  your  speaking  and  writing. 
Never  use  a  long  word  when  a  short  one  will  do  as  well. 

Call  a  spade  by  its  name,  not  a  well-known  oblong  instrument 
of  manual  labor  ;  let  a  home  be  a  home,  and  not  a  residence  ;  a 
place,  a  place,  not  a  locality  ;  and  so  on  of  the  rest.  When  a  short 
word  will  do,  you  always  lose  by  a  long  one.  You  lose  in^ clear- 
ness ;  you  lose  in  honest  expression  of  meaning  ;  and  in  the 
estimation  of  all  men  who  are  capable  of  judging,  you  lose  in 
reputation  for  ability. 


OF   THE   LETTER  229 

The  only  true  way  to  shine,  even  in  the  false  world,  is  to  be 
modest  and  unassuming.  Falsehood  may  be  a  thick  crust,  but  in 
the  course  of  time  truth  will  find  a  place  to  break  through. 
Elegance  of  language  may  not  be  in  the  power  of  us  all,  but 
simplicity  and  straightforwardness  are. 

Write  much  as  you  would  speak,  and  as  you  think.  If  with 
your  inferior,  speak  no  coarser  than  usual ;  if  with  your  superior, 
speak  no  finer.  Be  what  you  say  and  within  the  rules  of  pru- 
dence. No  one  was  ever  a  gainer  by  singularity  of  words  or  in 
pronunciation.  The  truly  wise  man  will  so  speak  that  no  one 
will  observe  how  he  speaks.  A  man  may  show  great  knowledge 
of  chemistry  by  carrying  bladders  of  strange  gases  to  breathe  ; 
but  one  will  enjoy  better  health,  and  find  more  time  for  business, 
who  lives  on  common  air. 

III.     SUBSTANCE  OF  THE  LETTEE 

Letter-writing  is  very  much  a  matter  of  habit,  and 
for  that  reason  it  is  important  that  young 
people  should  learn  early  to  consider  it  a    wrrtegood 
pleasant  way   of  communicating    thoughts 
and  feelings  to  their  friends,  instead  of  a  burdensome 
task  to  be  got  over  as  quickly  as  possible. 

We  often  hear  people  excuse  themselves  by  saying 
that  they  have  no  "gift  for  writing  letters",  as  though 
it  were  something  like  a  talent  for  music,  only  accorded 
to  a  favored  few.  But  the  truth  is  that  any  one  can 
write  interesting  and  pleasant  letters  who  will  take  a 
little  trouble  and  really  persevere  in  the  effort.  The 
grand  difficulty  in  the  way  is  that  they  are  too  selfish 
and  too  indolent  to  try.  Nothing  that  is  worth  any- 
thing comes  without  effort ;  and  if  you  do  not  care 
enough  about  gratifying  your  friends  to  take  a  little 
pains  for  it,  you  deserve  never  to  receive  any  letters 
yourselves. 


230 

"  Do  not  think  what  to  write  ;  write  what  you  think," 
whatto  is  an  old  rule,  and  a  good  one  to  remember, 
write.  jf  yOU  are  away  from  home,  it  is  very  selfish 

not  to  share  your  good  times  with  the  family  by  writing 
frequent  letters.  You  can  tell  what  you  are  enjoying 
so  much  better  while  it  is  fresh  in  your  mind,  than  you 
can  after  your  return,  when  you  may  not  have  leisure 
to  go  over  the  whole  ground ;  and  these  home  letters 
may  be  a  means  of  afterward  refreshing  your  own  mem- 
ory, and  reminding  you  of  incidents  which  you  would 
otherwise  have  forgotten.  There  are  many  other  things 
which  might  be  said  here,  but  this  will  do  for  the  pres- 
ent. A  very  good  rule  for  letter- writing  is  the  golden 
one,  ' ( Do  as  you  would  be  done  by." 

Write  all  that  you  have  to  say  on  one  subject  at  once. 
Write  That  is,  do  not  begin  to  tell  about  your  gar- 

fuiiy.  &en,  and  then  about  your  school,  and  then 

about  your  garden  again  ;  but  finish  one  subject  before 
you  begin  another.  Do  not  be  afraid  of  using  the  pro- 
noun I.  Some  people  avoid  it  and  thus  give  their  sen- 
tences a  shabby  and  unfinished  sound,  as  "  Went  to 
Boston — called  on  Mrs.  Smith. "  Never  apologize  for 
what  you  write  by  saying  that  yon  do  not  like  to  write  let- 
ters. You  would  not  think  it  quite  polite  in  visiting  a 
friend,  to  say,  "I  do  not  like  to  talk  to  you,  so  I  shall 
not  say  much."  Keep  the  idea  before  you  that  you  are 
writing  for  the  sake  of  giving  pleasure  to  your  friend. 

When  your  letter  is  merely  an  inquiry,  or  on  a  mat- 
ter of  business,  the  case  is  different.  You  then  should 
try  to  be  as  brief,  concise,  and  clear  as  possible.  An 
elaborately  drawn-out  business  letter  is  out  of  place  as  it 
it  is  inconsiderate. 


AS  TOT;  TALE  231 

Do  not  consider  anything  too  trivial  to  write  about 
which  you  would  think  worth  mentioning    Write  ag 
in  conversation.     Writing  letters  is  simply    you  talk, 
talking  on  paper,  and  your  friends  will  be  much  more 
entertained  by  the  narration  of  little  every-day  affairs 
than  by  profound  observations  upon  topics  which  they 
care  nothing  about. 

In  writing  to  very  intimate  friends,  who  will  be  in- 
terested in  the  details  of  your  daily  life,  it  is  well  some- 
times to  make  your  letters  a  sort  of  diary — telling  some- 
thing of  how  you  have  spent  each  day  since  you  wrote 
last ;  what  books  you  have  been  reading,  what  letters 
you  have  received  from  mutual  friends,  and  what  you 
have  seen  or  heard  that  has  interested  you. 

Many  persons,  not  much  accustomed  to  use  the  pen, 
have  a  notion  that  if  any  occasion  happens  Don,t  defer 
to  call  for  a  letter  on  any  business  matter  writing, 
they  must  immediately  compose  a  tedious  rigmarole  of 
statements  and  explanations  ;  and,  finding  it  difficult  to 
makeup  what  they  consider  " a  capital  letter",  they 
defer  writing  until  the  occasion  is  perhaps  gone,  or  at 
least  until  the  business  in  hand  has  suffered  considera- 
ble injury  by  the  delay.  But  if  they  divest  their  minds 
of  all  ideas  of  literary  composition,  and  just  write  what 
they  would  say,  in  the  fewest  possible  words,  and  at 
once,  such  persons  would  find  correspondence  agreeable 
rather  than  irksome. 

You  will  find  it  easier  to  reply  to  a  letter  soon  after 
you  get  it  than  if  you  neglect  it  for  a  few    Mnish  your 
weeks,  because  you  will  have  the  impressions    stories- 
which  the  first  reading  made  upon  your  mind.     Tell 
your  friend  when  you  received  the  letter  which  you  are 


LETTER-WRITIKG 

answering,  and  take  up  the  topics  in  the  order  which 
they  naturally  come,  remembering  to  answer  all  the 
questions  which  have  been  asked.  Try  to  think  what 
your  friend  would  like  best  to  hear  about,  and  when 
you  undertake  to  tell  anything  do  not  leave  it  half  told, 
but  finish  the  story.  People  who  are  not  careful  about 
this  often  give  a  false  impression  without  meaning  to 
do  so.  For  instance,  one  of  these  careless  writers,  in 
giving  an  account  of  a  fire,  simply  stated  that  the  house 
was  burned,  without  giving  any  qualifications,  thus 
giving  the  impression  that  it  was  entirely  consumed, 
and  causing  a  whole  family  much  unnecessary  trouble 
and  anxiety,  as  the  actual  burning  in  question  was  very 
slight. 

To  this  rule  there  is  a  single  exception.  Friendship, 
^^  to  like  all  other  moral  and  material  adornments 
delay.  Of  \{fe)  js  subject  to  blight  occasionally,  and 

the  strongest  union  may  be  dissolved  by  a  fiercer  heat 
arising  from  the  combustion  of  the  very  dregs  and  lees 
of  amity.  Your  friend  annoys  you,  disappoints  you, 
breaks  his  word,  or  lets  off  a  bit  of  scandal  that  reaches 
your  ears.  Then  you  will  " write  him  such  a  letter", 
you'll  tell  him  plainly  what  you  think  of  him,  and  put 
him  to  shame  by  the  evidence  of  black  and  white. 

Now,  if  you  are  wise  you  will  do  nothing  of  the  sort ; 
you  will  never  write  a  single  word  that  may  cause  shame 
or  pain  in  the  reader's  mind,  or  that  the  writer  may  have 
cause  hereafter  to  regret.  A  letter  is  a  document  that 
may  be  preserved  forever  ;  and  should  you  be  mistaken, 
or  only  partially  informed,  or  the  victim  of  your  own 
too  hasty  or  incompetent  judgment,  your  own  hand  and 
seal  may  remain  as  a  witness  of  your  rashness,  perhaps 


BITTER   WORDS — APOLOGIES  233 

of  your  meanness,  to  the  end  of  your  days,  aye,  and  long 
after  that,  to  the  end  of  the  world  even. 

Therefore  if  you  want  to  tell  your  friend  your  mind, 
do  not  write,  but  speak  it ;  a  spoken  bitter-  Bittep 
ness  may  be  forgotten  and  forgiven,  but  a  words- 
written  one  cannot  be  so  readily  forgiven,  and  can  never 
be  forgotten  ;  no,  not  even  if  burnt ;  for  when  we  are 
stung  in  the  perusal  of  something,  the  effect  goes  deep, 
and  can  never  be  obliterated,  even  by  all-corroding  time. 
A  fierce  letter,  a  sharply  written  reproof,  a  disparaging 
communication  to  a  friend,  has  been  the  cause  of  em- 
bittering many  pairs  of  lives.  Never  should  that  be 
written  which  we  may  hereafter  wish  to  recall.  We  are 
all  fallible,  and  may  be  much  in  error  when  we  feel  sure 
that  we  are  right.  That  consideration  should  be  suffi- 
cient to  make  any  sensible  man  or  woman  pause  before 
giving  vent  to  anger,  with  the  pen  in  hand. 

But  exceptions  to  such  a  rule  may  occur  ;  an  admoni- 
tion, a  reproof,  nay,  even  an  accusation,  may  sometimes 
be  necessary,  and  a  letter  be  the  only  possible  mode  of 
conveying  it.  Let  good  sense  and  good  feeling  deter- 
mine how  the  case  shall  be,  and  let  it  at  the  same  time 
be  borne  in  mind  that  what  is  once  written  cannot  be 
unwritten,  and  that  greater  caution  is  necessary  in  using 
the  pen,  than  in  using  the  tongue. 

In  apologizing  for  misconduct,  for  failing  to  meet  an 
engagement,  or  for  lack  of  punctuality,  al- 
ways state  the  reason.      Letters  of  excuse 
should  be  written  as  promptly  as  possible. 

In  asking  favors,  do  not  urge  the  claims  too  strongly. 
Should  a  refusal  be  the  result,  the  humiliation  will  be 
felt  deeply. 


234  LETTER-WRITING 

Letters  refusing  favors  should  be  kindly  worded,  and 
should  state  the  reason. 

In  writing  a  letter,  the  answer  to  which  is  of  more 

Encios  benefit  to  yourself  than  the  person  to  whom 

postage-         you  write,  enclose  a  stamp   for  the  reply. 

This  may  seem  to  be  a  small  matter,   but 

business  firms  usually  adopt  it,  and  it  is  only  just. 

A  letter  of  introduction,  or  recommendation  should 
never  be  sealed,  as  the  bearer  by  whom  it  is  sent 
ought  to  be  presumed  to  know  the  contents. 

As  a  rule,  every  letter,  unless  insulting  in  its  language, 
requires  an  answer,  which  should  usually  be  immediate. 
To  neglect  to  answer  a  letter  shows  ill-breeding. 

Business  letters  must  be  pithy,  short,  and  go  straight 
to  the  point.  Pleasantry  is  not  advisable.  It  is  best 
carefully  to  distinguish  letters  of  business  and  of  friend- 
ship. 

Every  paragraph  should  be  marked  by  extreme  clear- 
ness  and  perspicuity ;  so  clear  and  unambiguous  that 
the  dullest  person  may  be  able  to  understand  it  exactly. 

For  the  sake  of  perspicuity,  careful  attention  to 
punctuation  is  necessary. 

All  intercourse  between  parents  and  children  should 
be  free  and  confidential. 

Bead  your  letter  carefully  when  finished,  to  see  that 
you  have  made  no  omissions  or  mistakes. 

Be  very  sparing  of  letters  of  advice.  Even  when 
solicited,  advice  often  gives  offence,  and  it  should  be 
obtruded  only  when  the  necessity  seems  overwhelming. 

Useful  hints  and  illustrations  will  be  found  in  Bar- 
deen's  "Primer  of  Letter-Writing",  25  cts. 


ARITHMETIC 


In  order  to  teach  arithmetic  successfully  the  teacher 
should  have  an  idea  of  the  subject  as  a  whole. 
The  most  difficult  part  of  the  subject — as  in  onthefounda- 
all  subjects — is  the  fundamental  part ;  and 
unless  that  is  thoroughly  taught,  the  after  results  will 
be  unsatisfactory. 

More  time  is  given  to  the  subject  of  mathematics  in 
the  schools  than  to  any  other  study.  Important  as  it  is, 
it  should  not  receive  an  undue  proportion  of  time, — it 
should  not  be  pursued  at  the  expense  nor  to  the  neglect 
of  other  studies  of  equal  importance,  as  language,  read- 
ing, spelling,  etc. 

Nothing   is  gained   by   passing  rapidly  through  the 
primary   part.     Pupils   should  be  perfectly    Make  haste 
familiar  with  all  the  fundamental  operations  ;    slowly- 
able  to  write  numbers  of  five  and  six  periods  without 
hesitation  ;  to  add  rapidly  and  accurately  long  columns 
of  figures ;  and   to   perform   all   computations   in  the 
fundamental  rules  with  dispatch. 

The  first  part  of  arithmetic  should  be  simple,  and  the 
lesson  should  be  given  orally  by  the  teacher. 
More  attention  should  be  given  to  the  study 
of  processes  than  to  analysis — computation 
comes  first,  elaborate  reasoning  afterward.     During  the 
primary  course  the  aim  should  be  to  make  pupils  learn 
how  to  do  it. 

(235) 


236  ARITHMETIC 

Little  attention  should  be  given  to  definitions  ;  if  used 

they   should   be   fully   understood   and   ex- 
Definitions,  r  •-  ..j.i!  -4.4.  j 
plained,    otherwise  they  may  be  committed 

to  memory,  and  this  is  not  necessary  during  this  period. 
The  pupils  should  be  able  to  explain  the  processes,  but 
they  should  not  be  required  to  commit  the  rules  to 
memory,  nor  the  principles. 

Definitions,  rules,  and  principles  are  deductions, — do 
not  burden  the  children  with  these.  They  belong  to 
the  science  of  arithmetic. 

Thomas  Hill  says  in  his  book,  "  The  True  Order  of 
Studies",  that  "the  science  of  arithmetic  receives  so 
much  attention  that  the  art  is  neglected."  The  primary 
object  of  arithmetic  should  be,  not  to  develop  the  reason- 
ing power,  but  to  make  pupils  skillful  in  computation. 

He  further  says,  that  "A  child  should  not  be  expected 
or  required  to  reason  at  an  early  age.  Any  direct  train- 
ing of  the  logical  powers  before  the  age  of  twelve  years 
is  premature,  and  in  most  cases  a  positive  injury  to  the 
pupil.  The  common  sense  view  would  give  facts  before 
reasoning.  Eeasoning  upon  facts  is  the  work  of  a 
maturer  mind."  Granting  this  to  be  true,  arithmetic 
is  taught  backwards  in  many  cases,  beginning  with 
reason  instead  of  observation. 

I.     THE  FUNDAMENTAL  KULES 

The  teacher  should  begin  the  lessons  in  number  with 
Beeinwith  objects,  using  pencils,  crayons,  pebbles, 
objects.  books  ;  also  a  numeral  frame. 

"Initiate  children  in  arithmetic  by  means  of  the  ball- 
frame  alone,  thereby  making  their  elementary  instruc- 
tion a  simple  and  natural  extension  of  their  own  daily 


BEGIN  WITH    OBJECTS 


237 


observation,"  says  Laurie,  in  his  standard  book  "  On 
Primary  Instruction  in  relation  to  Education",  (p.  112), 
and  as  he  leaves  the  subject  of  arithmetic,  he  adds  this 
note,  as  if  in  fear  he  had  not  been  sufficiently  emphatic  : 

"The  teaching  of  arithmetic  should  be  begun  earlier 
than  is  customary,  and  always  with  the  ball-frame" 
(p.  117). 

The  object  is  to  lead  the  children  to  the  perception  of 
the  idea  of  numbers,  as  exemplified  in  surrounding 
objects. 

The  idea  to  be  gained  at  first  is  that  of  one,  as  it  is 
the  basis  of  all  arithmetical  calculations. 

The  teacher  should  hold  up  one  object  before  the 
class,  as  one  pencil,  one  crayon,  etc.,  until  every  child 
understands  what  is  meant  by  one, 


238  ARITHMETIC 

Tell  the  pupil  that  one  is  the  word  that  expresses 
"  the  how  many  ",  the  number. 

After  you  have  taught  the  word  one,  then  teach  the 
character  that  represents  it. 

"Develop  the  idea,  then  give  the  term;  educate  the 
eye,  then  employ  the  hand  ;  cultivate  the  use  of  lan- 
guage, then  exercise  memory." 

Pupils  should  not  count  one,  two,  three,  etc.,  naming 
the  abstract  term ;  they  should  say  one  pencil,  one 
crayon,  one  book. 

Proceed  in  the  same  manner  to  teach  two,  by  holding 
'  up  two  objects  of  different  kinds.  After  they  are  made 
familiar  with  the  number  of  objects,  let  marks  be  made 
on  the  blackboard  ;  then  the  characters  that  represent 
the  number  of  marks.  Let  children  reproduce  at  their 
seats  the  work  given  at  the  board  by  the  teacher. 

At  this  point  see  that  the  pupils  get  the  idea  of  the 
Value  of  value  of  numbers,  by  comparing  a  greater 

numbers.  group  of  objects. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  teach  the  order  of  numbers, 
Order  of  so  ^na^  ^ne  children  can  tell  what  number 
numbers.  comes  before  and  what  after  any  given  num- 
ber. This  may  be  illustrated  with  the  class,  or  the 
picture  of  a  ladder. 

Teach  the  pupils  in  the  same  way  to  write  numbers 
to  99.  Give  no  instruction  about  units  and  tens,  etc., 
until  a  later  period. 

Teach  the  subject  so  thoroughly  that  your  successor 
will  not  be  obliged  to  instruct  in  it. 

NUMERATION  AND  NOTATION 

The  pupils  have  been  taught  thus  far  to  deal  with 
ones.  They  are  now  supposed  to  be  familiar 
with  the  numbers  to  1,000,  They  may  now 


NOTATION   AND   NUMERATION  239 

be  taught  that  there  is  another  name — unit,  which 
means  a  sin  le  thing — that  may  be  used  with  the 
figures,  as  1  unit,  2  units,  etc. 

At  this  stage  the  teacher  may  provide  several  small 
sticks,   about   the   size   of   matches.      Take 
several  sticks  and  let  the  pupils  count  10 ; 
proceed  in  the  same  manner  until  10  bundles  have  been 
made  ;  now  let  them  see  that  1  bundle  contains  10  sticks, 
or  ten  units,  or  ten  ;  2  bundles,  20  sticks,  or  20  units, 
or  20  ;  and  so  proceed  until  you  reach  100. 

Write  numbers  on  the  board  to  correspond  with  the 
objects  and  groups  ;  let  them  read  the  numbers,  as  1  ten 
and  1  unit,  1  ten  and  2  units  ;  20,  2  tens  ;  30,  3  tens,  etc. 

When  the  pupils  can  readily  read  columns  of  units 
and  tens,  they  may  be  required  to  write  these 
numbers   on   the   slate.     The   teacher   may 
dictate  numbers.     Let  them  write  numbers  below  100, 
and  ask  them  what  they  used  to  write  the  number.    For 
example,  write  86.      How  did  you  write  it  ?     With  8 
tens  and  6  units,  etc. 

They  have  been  already  taught  that  10  units  make  1 
ten,    and  10  tens   make  1   hundred.     Now 
let  them   read   the  numbers.     For  example 
123  ;  3  units,  2  tens,  1  hundred,  read  123  units.     The 
teacher,    after   sufficient  drill,   should   obtain   bundles 
with  100  sticks. 

Supplement  these  illustrations  with  dictation  exercises, 
and  so  proceed  until  the  pupils  are  made  familiar  with 
and  can  write  numbers  readily  from  dictation  on  the 
slates  and  at  the  board,  and  read  their  values. 

The  pupils  must  have  a  clear  idea  that  units  may 
differ  in  size  and  value — that  one  of  any-    orders  of 
thing  is  a  unit,  whether  large  or  small.     One    unitSt 


240  ARITHMETIC 

bushel  is  a  unit ;  one  dollar  is  a  unit ;  one  cent  is  a  unit. 
They  have  already  been  taught  that  numbers  are  built 
up  of  simple  "ones",  so  far  as  100;  that  each  ten  is 
considered  as  a  whole,  or  1  ten ;  that  each  hundred  is 
regarded  as  a  whole,  or  1  hundred. 

Now  they  are  prepared  to  see  what  is  meant  by  a  unit 
of  the  first  order,  of  the  second  order,  of  the  third 
order,  etc. 

This  step  is  sometimes  omitted  in  teaching  number. 
It  is  a  very  important  one  ;  it  should  be  carefully  taught 
and  the  pupils  thoroughly  drilled  upon  it. 

Let  them  see  that  it  is  the  position  of  a  figure  that 
determines  its  value. 

Teachers  are  too  ambitious  in  advancing  pupils  in 

arithmetic.     Some  teachers  will  promote  to 

mote  too        higher  classes  pupils  that  could  not  pass  an 

rapidly.  ...  .      r         ,.  , 

examination  in  notation  and  numeration. 
Frequently  we  find  pupils  ciphering  in  percentage,  who 
fail  in  writing  and  reading  a  number  of  four  figures. 
Never  let  pupils  pass  beyond  the  fundamental  rules 
until  they  are  familiar  with  them,  and  are  able  readily 
to  apply  them. 

They  will  make  slow  progress  in  the  advanced  steps 
if-  this  is  not  understood, — they  will  make  rapid  progress 
if  it  is  thoroughly  understood. 

Teach  so  thoroughly  that  your  successor  may  not  be 
obliged  to  unteach  what  has  been  taught. 

Too  much  pains  cannot  be  taken  with  notation, 
numeration,  and  addition.  The  law  of  increase  and  de- 
crease may  be  thoroughly  developed  with  these  rules. 

Again  we  repeat,  "not  how  much  but  how  well," 


USE  OF  OBJECTS  241 

ADDITION* 

Begin  the  subject  in  the  same  way  as  the  first,  with 
objects.     Marks  upon  the  blackboard  may 
be  used  after  the  children  have  become  fa- 
miliar with  adding  objects.     Use  the  numeral  frame 
but  see  that  the  children  do  not  confound  counting  with 
adding. 

Let  pupils  add  concrete  numbers  without  having  the 
objects  before  them.      The  continued  use  of    Use  of 
objects  as  counters  by  children  is  a  positive    objects- 
harm,  as  they  look  to  them  for  results  rather  than  to 
memory.     It  is  only  another  form  of  counting  on  the 
fingers. 

Do  not  let  the  pupils  add  numbers  in  the  following 
manner:  "  What  is  the  sum  of  8  apples,  7    Economy 
apples  and  4  apples  ?    8  apples  and  7  apples    words- 
are  15  apples ;  15  apples  and  4  apples  are  19  apples/' 
Kather  have  them  say  ;  "  8  apples,  15  apples,  19  apples." 
Simply  announce  the  results  and  do  not  allow  them  to 
count. 

The  concrete  numbers  may  soon  be  dropped  altogether 
for  they   interfere   with  the  one    aim  the 
teacher  should  have  in  view — the  instantane- 
ous recognition  in  any  two  numbers  of  their  sum. 

Many  expedients  to   effect  this  have  been  devised. 
Thus  the  Germans  construct  tables  like  the    A  German 

following  I  expedient. 

2  3 

86  97 

2+4  3+4 

2+6  3+6 

40  51 

(1)  W 


242  ARITHMETIC 

4  5 

2         8 

26  91 

4+2  5+7 

4+8  6       6+7      4 

08  37 

0 

(3)  (4) 

2  4 

9          5 
6  8 

2  +  3  4  +  5 

3       2  +  7       1 
0  4 

7  9 

(5)  (6) 

In  circle  No.  1,  begin  with  2,  add  4,  and  write  the 
results  about  the  circle.  When  the  result  exceeds  nine, 
write  the  right  hand  figure  only.  Beginning  with  1, 
passing  to  the  right,  we  have  the  following  :  2,  6,  10,  14, 
18,  22,  26,  30,  34,  38,  42,  etc.;  again  beginning  with  2, 
passing  to  the  left,  we  have  the  following  :  2,  8,  14,  20, 
26,  32,  38,  44,  50,  etc 

In  order  to  form  the  circular  tables,  take  any  number 
less  than  ten  and  add  a  number  to  it,  and  continue  the 
successive  additions  until  you  repeat  the  first  figure ; 
write  these  numbers  about  the  circle. 

Begin  with  the  number  1,  and  add  the  number  to  10  ; 
and  so  on  with  each  number. 

This  exercise  produces  great  ambition  in  the  school, 
and  pupils  like  to  take  part  in  it.  They  should  first,  be 
called  on  to  recite  in  concert ;  subsequently  by  individual 
drill.  Time  them,  and  see  how  many  seconds  they  will 


ADDITION  243 

require  to  add  100.  Only  six  of  the  tables  are  given, 
many  others  may  be  made  by  the  teacher.  The  Ger- 
mans have  attained  grand  results  with  the  circular  tables. 

But  a  more  direct  and  effective  method  has  been  de- 
vised by  Dr.  H.  K.  Sanford,  one  of  the  New 
York  State  conductors  of  teachers'  institutes,    method  in 
It  consists  of  45  cards  containing  the  45  pos- 
sible combinations  of  two  digits,  arranged  as  in  the  ac- 
companying figure,  each  card   having  on  its  back  the 
same  numbers  in  reverse  order. 

Problems  in  addition,  subtraction  and  multiplication 
are  everywhere  written  for  solution  in  this  one  way, 
viz.,  one  number  above  the  other  with  a  line  beneath. 
Evidently  the  method  of  drill  should  be  the  same.  He 
thinks  there  is  no  advantage  in  the  making  of  rules  by 
children. 

His  plan  is  to  follow  each  development  lesson  imme- 
diately with  a  drill  upon  all  combinations  developed, 
using  these  cards  exclusively.  Hold  the  package  of 
cards  selected  for  a  lesson  in  one  hand  before  the  class, 
and  rapidly  move  them  one  at  a  time  to  the  front ;  the 
teacher  thus  sees  one  side  and  the  pupils  the  other. 
Concert  exercises  are  not  recommended.  The  best  re- 
sults will  be  obtained  by  calling  pupils  miscellaneously 
and  presenting  several  cards  in  rapid  succession.  Only 
two  daily  exercises  of  ten  minutes  each  are  necessary. 
Do  not  introduce  new  cards  too  rapidly. 

At  every  exercise  review  all  cards  previously  used  as 
long  as  necessary.  Answers  must  be  instantaneous.  The 
least  hesitation  should  be  considered  a  failure.  Present 
the  cards  selected  for  a  particular  exercise  miscellane- 
ously so  that  no  answer  can  be  known  from  the  preced- 


244 


AKITHMETIC 


ABDITIOK  245 

ing.  The  position  can  not  indicate  the  result  as  when 
numbers  are  arranged  on  a  chart,  or  tables  are  made 
by  the  children. 

Let  the  drill  be  so  thorough  that  when  a  pair  of  fig- 
ures is  seen,  as  j[,  the  sum,  difference  or  product  as 
required  will  instantly  appear  to  the  mind  ;  e.  g.,  at 
the  first  glance  the  pupil  reads  £  as  16,  not  as  7  and  9 
are  16,  as  CAT  is  read  as  a  word,  not  as  C-A-T. 

Pursue  the  same  plan  in  subtraction  and  multiplica- 
tion. When  in  subtraction  the  smaller  number  is 
above,  pupils  will  readily  add  ten  to  the  minuend  and 
give  the  remainder  in  the  usual  manner. 

No  other  means  will  be  necessary  for  the  complete 
mastery  of  the  multiplication  table  in  a  marvelously 
short  time. 

After  perfectly  learning  the  multiplication  table, 
very  little  drill  is  needed  in  the  division  table. 

When  the  number  4  has  been  reached,  commence 
column  work,  but  never  let  the  sum  be  greater  than  the 
last  number  developed.  The  columns  will  gradually 
become  longer  and  the  sums  greater,  yet  no  new  com- 
bination  of  single  pairs  of  figures  can  possibly  occur. 

Finally  let  the  columns  be  read  up  and  down  silently, 
giving  only  final  results.  This  can  be  done  with  re- 
markable rapidity  and  accuracy,  if  all  single  combina- 
tions involved  have  been  thoroughly  learned  by  card 
drill. 

Wonderful  results  have  been  obtained  with  these 
cards  in  normal  and  other  schools. 

Because  pupils  thus  learn  the  combinations  of  num- 
bers, they  learn  that  combining  the  4  and  5  will  always 
produce  a  9  ;  a  6  and  a  5  a  1 ;  9  and  5  a  4  ;  8  and  5  a  3  ; 


246  ARITHMETIC 

7  and  5  a  2,  etc.,  and  by  daily  systematical  drill  they 
overcome  the  hesitancy  which  is  a  common  fault  in 
American  schools.  No  rule  in  arithmetic  is  used  so 
much  as  addition,  and  no  pains  should  be  spared  to 
teach  it  well. 

An  experience  of  fifteen  years  at  institutes  has  re- 
vealed sad  results  in  adding  simple  columns  of  figures. 
In  many  instances  the  teachers  had  not  been  taught  to 
add  properly  in  their  youth,  and  we  have  frequently  re- 
ceived twenty-five  different  answers  to  a  problem  like 
the  following : — 

Add  8085,  7898,  7697  and  9876. 

We  are  thus  particular  and  emphatic,  concerning 
The  first  *ne  earlj  steps  of  mathematical  education, 
step  costs.  because  it  is  "the  first  step  which  costs  ". 
Much  more  labor  is  required  to  unlearn  than  to  learn. 
The  teachers  for  the  younger  classes  should  possess  par- 
ticular aptness  for  imparting  instruction.  Such  teach- 
ers, deserve  and  are  beginning  to  receive  better  wages. 

After  the  pupils  have  mastered  the  fundamental  rules 
and  their  reasoning  powers  begin  to  develop, 
the  teacher  should  require  an  analysis  of  the 
problem. 

The  mechanical  operation — the  doing  part,  should 
not  be  confounded  with  the  logical  operation — the 
thinking  part,  but  the  latter  has  its  place.  Thus  : 

What  is  the  sum  of  8764,  9789,  5786  and  9843  ? 
8764 
9789 
5786 
9843 

34,182 


SUBTRACTION  247 

i  have  written  the  numbers  so  that  units  of  the  same  order 
stand  under  each  other.  For  convenience  I  will  begin  at  the 
right  hand  ;  adding  the  first  order,  the  sum  is  22  units.  As  ten 
units  make  one  ten,  22  units  are  equal  to  2  tens  and  2  units  ;  I  will 
write  the  2  units  in  the  order  of  units,  and  add  the  two  tens  to 
the  order  of  tens. 

Proceed  in  this  manner  with  each  order,  giving  the 
reasons  for  every  step. 

Eequire  the  pupils  to  deduce  the  rule  from  the 
analysis. 

ANALYSIS  OF  CONCRETE  PROBLEM 

Problem : — If  a  horse  cost  $120,  and  a  wagon  $110, 
and  a  harness  $90,  what  will  be  the  entire  expense  ? 

Analysis: — The  entire  ' expense  will  be  the  sum  of 
$120,  $110,  and  $90  ;  or  $320. 

The  simplest  and  most  concise  analysis  should  be 
taught  to  the  children.  No  unnecessary  words  should 
be  allowed  in  the  analysis  of  a  problem. 

SUBTRACTION 

This  subject  should  be  taught  like  addition,  begin- 
ning with  objects,  first  by  taking  away  one  ob-    First  by 
ject,  then  two  objects,  etc.     After  the  pupils    obJects- 
have  become  familiar  with  this  process,'  then  use  marks 
on  the   board,    subsequently   using   concrete   numbers 
without  having  objects  before  them.     At  first  ask  the 
pupils  to  answer  in  concert,  followed  by  individual  drill. 

After  the  children  have  become  familiar  with  the  pre- 
ceding processes,  the  teacher  may  write  num- 

,  , ,       ,  -,          -  n  -,  .         ,         By  figures. 

bers  on  the  board  as  far  as  9,  and  require  the 
children  to  subtract  one,    then   two,   then   three,  etc. 
Vary  the  processes.     For   rapid   work   Sanford's  cards 
will  be  found  effective. 


248  ARITHMETIC 

When  the  figure  in  the  subtrahend  is  greater  in  value 
Minuend         than  the  corresponding  figure  in  the  minu- 
smaiier.          end,  the  process  must  be  explained  clearly. 
Subtract  456  from  824. 

824    or    7  11  14 
456  456 


368  368 

I  have  written  the  numbers  as  in  addition,  writing  the  subtra- 
Analysis.  hend  under  the  minuend. 

Begin  at  the  right  hand  to  subtract.  Six  units  from  4  units  I 
cannot  take  ;  take  1  ^en  from  the  2  tens  and  it  equals  10  units  ;  10 
units  and  4  units  are  14  units ;  6  units  from  14  units  equal  8 
units  ;  write  underneath  in  the  units  order. 

Five  tens  from  1  ten  I  cannot  take  ;  take  1  hundred  from  8 
hundreds  and  it  equals  10  tens  ;  10  tens  and  1  ten  equal  11  tens ;  5 
tens  from  11  tens  equal  6  tens  ;  write  it  underneath  in  the  tens 
order.  Four  hundreds  from  7  hundreds  leave  3  hundreds,  etc. 

By  this  process  it  will  be  observed  that  the  form  of 
the  minuend  was  changed  without  altering  its  value. 
The  subtrahend  in  form  remained  unchanged.  The 
teacher  should  see  that  the  pupils  understand  that  8 
hundreds,  2  tens  and  4  units  are  of  the  same  value  as  7 
hundreds,  11  tens  and  four  units. 

This  is  a  simple  analysis  and  easily  understood. 

I  cannot  take  6  units  from  4  units  ;  so  will  add  10  units  to  4, 
equal  14  units  ;  6  units  from  14  units  equal  8  units  ; 
as  *  have  aclded  10  units  to  the  minuend,  in  order  to 
preserve  the  equality,  I  must  add  10  units  or  1  ten  to 
the  subtrahend  ;  adding  1  ten  to  5  tens  equals  6  tens  ;  6  tens  from  2 
tens  I  cannot  take  ;  I  will  add  10  tens  to  two  tens,  equal  to  12  tens  ; 
6  tens  from  12  tens  equal  6  tens  ;  as  I  have  added  10  tens  or  1  hun- 
dred to  the  minuend  I  must  add  1  hundred  to  the  hundreds  in  the 
subtrahend  ;  4  hundreds  and  1  hundred  are  5  hundreds,  and  5  hun- 
dreds from  8  hundreds  leave  3  hundreds.  This  depends  upon  the 


MULTIPLICATION  ;     DIVISION  249 

principle  that  to  add  equal  numbers  to  both  minuend  and  sub- 
trahend does  not  alter  the  value  of  the  remainder. 

This  analysis  may  be  required  in  addition  to  the  first, 
but  is  not  to  be  preferred  to  it. 

When  there  are  ciphers  in  the  minuend,   ciphers  in 
the  explanation  is  similar.  the  minuend- 

Subtract  456  from  1000. 

9  9  10 

1000 

456 


544 

Analysis  /—There  are  no  units  in  the  units  order,  no  tens  in 
the  tens  order,  no  hundreds  in  the  hundreds  order.  In  1000  there 
are  9  hundreds,  9  tens  and  10  units.  Six  units  from  10  units  equal 
4  units  ;  5  tens  from  9  tens  equal  4  tens  ;  4  hundreds  from  9  hun- 
dreds equal  5  hundreds.  (The  form  of  the  minuend  has  been 
changed,  but  not  its  value.)  Deduce  the  rule. 

MULTIPLICATION 

Problem  .-—What  will  40  books  cost  at  $9  apiece. 

Analysis : — Since  one  book  costs  $9,  40  books  will  cost  40  times 
$9,  equal  to  $360. 

The  teacher  should  insist  that  the  pupils  use  the  true 
multiplier  in  all  concrete  problems. 

Drill  upon  the  multiplication  table.  Kequire  pupils 
to  say  it  forward,  backward  and  irregularly,  till  every 
product  of  two  numbers  presents  itself  to  the  mind 
instantly.  Make  constant  use  of  Sanford's  cards. 

DIVISION 

Begin  with  objects  ;  ask  questions  as  follows  :     What 
have  I  on  my  table  ?    One  apple.     How  many    First  by 
times  can  I  take  one  from  it  ?     Once.     What    ot)Jects- 
have  I  placed  on  my  table  ?     Tivo  pencils.     How  many 
times  can  I  take  one  pencil  from  my  table  ?     Two  times. 


250  ARITHMETIC 

Each  may  place  one  watch  on  his  desk.  How  many 
times  can  you  take  one  watch  from  your  desk  ?  Once. 
Place  three  drums  on  your  desk.  How  many  times  can 
you  take  three  drums  from  your  desk  ?  Once.  How 
many  times  can  you  take  one  drum  from  the  desk  ? 
Three  tim.es,  etc. 

Place  eight  books  on  the  desk.  How  many  times  can 
you  take  four  books  from  the  desk  ? 

How  many  times  can  you  take  two  books  ?  Once, 
twice,  three  times,  four  times.  How  many  times  can  you 
take  one  book  ?  Once,  twice,  etc.  Place  sixteen  pencils 
on  the  desk.  How  many  times  can  I  take  four  pencils 
from  them  ? 

Place  ten  coins  on  the  desk,  and  divide  them  into  two 
equal  parts  ;  how  many  coins  in  each  part  ?  Place  nine 
books  on  the  desk,  and  divide  them  into  three  equal 
parts  ;  how  many  in  each  part  ?  Take  away  one  part, 
how  m&ny  parts  will  remain  ?  Take  away  one  part,  how 
many  books  will  remain  ?  Place  sixteen  pencils  on  the 
desk,  and  divide  them  into  four  equal  parts  ;  how  many 
pencils  are  there  in  each  part  ? 

By   the   use  of  oral  abstract  questions,  thus  :     How 

many  two's  in  8  ?     In  2  ?     In  14  ?     In  10  ? 

strict  mim-      How  many  times  can  four  be  taken  from  8  ? 

From  24  ?    From  32  ?    Twelve  is  how  many 

times  2  ?     How  many  times  4  ?     How  many  times  6  ? 

How  many  times  are  four  contained  in  8  ?     In  12,  in 

20  ?  etc.     Sixteen  contains  2  how  many  times  ?  Contains 

4  ?     Contains  8  ?  etc.     What  is  one-third  of  9  ?     Of  15  ? 

Of  21?     Of  18  Pete. 


THE   GLUBB   METHOD  251 

It  is  usual  to  teach  the  subject  of  addition  by  itself, 
then  subtraction,  etc.     By  the  Grube  method    The  Grub£ 
the  pupil  begins  with  1,  and  learns  all  there    method- 
is  to  know  about  it  before  passing  over  another  number, 
performing  all  the  operations  possible  within  the  limits 
of  this  number.     He  has  to  see  and  keep  in  mind  that — 
=  2,   1X1  =  1     1  —  1=0,  l-f-l  =  l,  etc. 
3,  3X1  =  3     2—1  =  1,  2-5-1  =  2,  etc. 

The  whole  circle  of  operation  up  to  2  is  exhausted 
before  he  goes  on  to  the  number  3,  which  is  to  be  treated 
in  the  same  way. 

The  first  four  processes  are  naturally  connected,  and 
will  appear  so  in  the  child's  mind. 

If  you  take  away  1  from  2,  and  1  remains,  the  child 
in  knowing  this  also  understands  implicitly  the  opposite 
process  of  adding  1  to  1  and  its  result. 

Multiplication  and  division  are,  in  the  same  way, 
nothing  but  another  way  of  adding  and  subtracting,  so 
that  we  might  say  one  operation  contains,  and  may  be 
shown  to  contain,  all  the  others. 

"You  must  teach  the  child  to  know  the  numbers  in 
some  way  or  other,"  but  "  to  know  a  number  really 
means  to  know  also  its  most  simple  relations  to  the  num- 
ber contained  therein."  Any  child  who  knows  a  num- 
ber and  its  relations,  must  be  also  able  to  perform  the 
operations  of  addition  and  subtraction,  etc.,  with  it,  as 
they  are  the  direct  result  of  comparing  two  numbers 
with  each  other.  Only  when  the  child  can  perform  all 
these  operations,  for  instance  within  the  limits  of  2, 
can  it  be  supposed  really  to  have  a  perfect  knowledge  of 
this  number. 


252  ARITHMETIC 

This  seems  to  be  a  rational  method  and  worthy  of  a 
trial ;  it  has  proved  superior  in  practice  to  the  methods 
in  use. 

A  full  exposition  of  this  method,  commonly  known 
as  the  Grube  metho.d,  may  be  found  in  Beebe's  First 
Steps  Among  Figures. 

A  knowledge  of  the  process  must  precede  any  attempt 
Processes  ^°  £*ve  a  theory  or  to  supply  a  rule.  Theory, 
before  rules.  }n  fact^  implies  that  the  conceptions  it  em- 
braces are  already  in  the  mind,  and  the  rule  is  universal 
that  it  springs  from  or  is  based  on  practice. 

The  process  must  be  made  clear  by  examples  from 
experience,  aided  in  every  possible  way  by  sensible  repre- 
sentations, either  objects,  marks,  or  diagrams.  When 
these  have  set  forth  the  process,  it  should  be  made 
familiar  by  well-constructed  examples  to  be  worked 
mentally. 

This,  when  a  process  is  clear  and  intelligent,  is  a 
Accuracy  matter  only  of  a  memory,  and  depends  on 
and  rapidity,  practice.  The  two  things  to  be  secured  are 
accuracy  and  rapidity.  These  important  habits  may 
be  established  by  a  thorough  knowledge  of  all  the  tables, 
and  abundant  practice  in  computation. 

To  acquire  facility  in  operation  the  teacher  should 
written  require  the  pupils  to  bring  in  to  the  daily 
analysis.  recitation  a  written  analysis  of  one  or  two 
problems.  The  mechanical  process  also  should  be  re- 
quired, and  the  work  should  be  neatly  and  correctly  ex- 
pressed. This  work  should  be  examined  by  the  teacher, 
else  the  pupils  will  lose  interest  in  its  performanee  and 
become  careless  in  the  mechanical  execution. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS  253 

EXAMINE  AND  CROSS-EXAMINE  THE  PUPILS  IN  THEIR 
WORK,  AND  SEE  IF  THEY  CAN  GIVE  A  REASON  FOR 
EVERY  STEP. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS 

1.  We  cannot  impress  too  strongly  upon  the  teacher's 
mind  that  each  lesson  in  arithmetic  must  be  at  the  same 
time  a  lesson  in  language.     As  the  pupil  in  the  primary 
grade  should  be  generally  held  to  answer  in  complete 
sentences  with  clear  and  distinct  articulation  so  especial- 
ly in  arithmetic,  the  teacher  should  insist  on  fluency, 
smoothness  and  neatness  of  expression,  and  lay  special 
stress  upon  the  process  of  the  solution  of  each  example. 

2.  Teachers  should  avoid  asking  too  many  questions. 
Such  questions,  moreover,  as  by  containing 

i     i  /»  ,  i  n  11  111      Let  the  pu- 

half  the  answer,  prompt  the  scholar,  should    piisdothe 
be  omitted.     The  pupil  should  do  the  talking 
as  much  as  possible. 

3.  No  new  numbers  should  be  commenced  before  the 
previous  one  is  perfectly  mastered.  It  would    Memorya 
be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  in  teaching  ac-    factor- 
cording  to  this   plan,  memory  is  not  required  on  the 
part  ot  the  child.     Memory  is  an  important  factor  here, 
as  it  is  on  all  instruction.     I  say  this  boldly,  though  I 
know  with  some  teachers  it  has  become  almost  a  crime 
to  say  that  memory  holds  its  place  in  education. 

4.  Analyses  given  by  pupils  are  often  re-    Redundant 
dundant.  analysis- 

Problem: — James  had  five  cents  and  he  found  seven  more; 
how  many  had  he  then  ? 

First  Step. — James  had  five  cents  and  he  found  seven  more  ; 
how  many  had  he  then  ? 


254  ARITHMETIC 

Second  Step. — He  had  as  many  as  the  sum  of  five  cents  and 
seven  cents. 

Third  Step. — Five  cents  plus  seven  cents  are  twelve  cents. 

Fourth  Step. — Therefore,  if  James  had  five  cents,  and  he  found 
seven  more,  he  then  had  twelve  cents. 

In  the  above  analysis,  as  it  is  given  in  many  schools, 
the  pupils  have  used  fifty-one  words.  No  business  man 
in  solving  this  problem  would  go  through  with  this 
rigmarole.  If  the  teacher  repeats  the  problem  it  is  not 
necessary  for  the  pupil  to  repeat  it.  There  is  no  ob- 
jection to  the  pupil's  reading  the  problem  from  the 
book. 

The  great  object  sought  for  in  the  study  of  arithme- 
tic, is  to  develop  and  strengthen  the  reasoning  powers. 

It  is  a  positive  injury  to  require  pupils  to  commit  to 
memory  simple  arithmetical  problems  that  are  of  no 
value  whatever  after  the  answer  is  attained. 

The  following  analysis  is  to  be  preferred  : 

Since  James  had  five  cents,  and  found  seven  cents,  he  had  the 
sum  of  five  cents  and  seven  cents,  or  twelve  cents. 

In  this  analysis  we  have  used  twenty- two  words, 
instead  of  fifty-one.  "Therefore",  etc.,  at  the  close  of 
a  problem  is  unnecessary  repetition. 

Problem : — A  boy  having  seven  marbles,  lost  five  of  them ;  how 
many  had  he  left  ? 

First  Step. — He  had  as  many  left  as  the  difference  between 
seven  marbles  and  five  marbles. 

Second  Step. — Seven  marbles  minus  five  marbles  are  two  mar- 
bles. 

Third  Step.— Therefore,  if  a  boy  having  seven  marbles  lost  five 
of  them,  he  has  two  left. 

This  is  better  : 

Since  a  boy  having  seven  marble  lost  five  of  them,  he  had 
left  the  difference  between  seven  marbles  and  five  marbles,  equal 
to  two  marbles. 


REDUNDANT  ANALYSIS  255 

Problem : — At  seven  dollars  a  pair,  what  will  five  pairs  of  boots 
cost  ? 

First  Step. — If  one  pair  costs  seven  dollars,  five  pairs  (or  more 
frequently,  five  pairs  which  are  five  times  one  pair)  will  cost  five 
times  seven  dollars. 

Second  Step. — Five  times  seven  dollars  are  thirty -five  dollars. 

Third  Step. — Therefore,  at  seven  dollars  a  pair,  five  pairs  will 
cost  thirty-five  dollars. 

Say  instead  : 

Since  one  pair  costs  seven  dollars,  five  pairs  will  cost  five  times 
seven  dollars,  equal  to  thirty -five  dollars.- 

Problem: — If  a  man  laid  out  $100  for  cows,  and  paid  $20  for 
each  one  he  bought,  how  many  cows  did  he  buy  ? 

Mrst  Step. — If  one  cow  cost  $20,  he  bought  as  many  cows  for 
$100  as  20  is  contained  times  in  100. 

Second  Step.  — 20  is  contained  in  100  5  times. 

Third  Step. — Therefore,  if  a  man  laid  out  $100  for  cows,  and 
paid  $20  for  each  one  that  he  bought,  he  bought  5  cows. 

How  much  better  to  say  : 

He  bought  as  many  cows  as  $20  is  contained  times  in  $100,  or 
5  cows. 

Some  meet  with  difficulty  in  analyzing  problems  in 
division,  when  they  consist  of  concrete  num-      concrete 
bers.     Division  is  finding  how  many  times      division, 
one  number  can  be  subtracted  from  another  of  the  same 
kind. 

Dollars  can  be  divided  by  dollars  and  by  nothing  else  ; 
yards,  can  be  divided  by  yards  and  by  nothing  else  ;  and 
so  on  for  any  other  things  that  might  be  mentioned. 

That  dollars  can  only  be  divided  by  dollars  arises  from 
the  fact  that  division  is  but  a  short  process  of  finding 
how  many  times  one  number  or  quantity  can  be  sub- 
tracted from  another,  and  we  can  subtract  only  dollars 


256  AKITHMETIC 

from  dollars ;  therefore  we  can  divide  dollars  only  by 
dollars.  Thus  : 

Divide  $42  equally  among  6  men.  Now  we  cannot  divide  $42 
by  6  men  or  by  6  ;  but  if  we  give  each  man  a  dollar,  then  that  will 
require  $6,  and  $6  can  be  subtracted  from  $42  seven  times. 
Hence  we  can  give  each  man  a  dollar  seven  tunes,  or  we  can  give 
$7  at  one  time. 

After  the  operation  is  performed,  we  may  call  the  7, 
seven  dollars  ;  then  the  6  will  be  a  mere  number,  and 
thus,  indirectly,  we  may  divide  $42  by  6. 

Practically,  however,  all  such  operations  are  performed 
abstractly,  as  42,  6,  7,  taken  as  mere  numbers. 

The  study  and  solution  of  examples  and  their  dis- 
Pointstobe  cussion  in  the  class  involve  the  following 

emphasized.      points  : 

1.  Correct  reading.     Not  one  pupil  in  twenty  reads  a 
new  kind  of  problem  correctly  the  first  time. 

2.  Examination  preparatory  to  solution.  A  celebrated 
mathematician  said  that  if  his  life  depended  on  solving 
a  complicated  problem  within  an  hour,  he  would  give 
the  first  thirty  minutes  to  studying  it  before  putting 
down  a  figure. 

3.  Analysis  and  solution. 

4.  Keviewing,  to  see  that  there  are  no  errors. 

5.  General  correction  by  the  rule  of  Common  Sense. 
A  mistake  in  pointing  off  may  make  a  barrel  of  flour 
cost  70  cts.  or  $70,  but  the  pupil's  common  sense  should 
teach  him  that  neither  is  possible. 

cautions.       Keep  in  mind  the  following  cautions. 

1.  Present  single  ideas,  single  facts  and  single  diffi- 
culties. 

2.  Call  up  each  point  in  the  lesson  frequently. 


MENTAL  AKITHMETIC  257 

3.  Teach  simple  processes. 

4.  Keep  the  mind  active. 

5.  See  that  pupils  get  a  clear  perception  of  principles. 

6.  Fix  and  hold  the  attention. 

( 1.  Correct  perception. 
1.  Mental  discipline    -<  2.  Attention. 
(3.  Practice. 


Results.   - 


2.  Practical  business     ( 1.  Accuracy. 


preparation.         •{  2.  Expertness. 
Rapidity. 


Ji 

I*. 


3.  Preparation  for  advanced  study. 

The  analysis  of  a  problem  is  the  same  in  mental  as  in 
written  arithmetic.  The  difference  is  that  Mentai 
mental  arithmetic  is  limited  to  problems  arithmetic, 
that  may  be  performed  mentally,  without  recourse  to 
written  symbols.  It  is  a  fact  that  those  pupils  who 
have  been  trained  carefully  in  mental  arithmetic  take 
up  the  principles  of  higher  mathematics  more  readily. 
The  language  used  should  be  sufficient  to  render  the 
solution  of  the  example  clearly  intelligible  to  a  listener, 
yet  so  brief  as  not  to  retard  the  process  of  mental  cal- 
culation. Mental  arithmetic  should  both  precede  and 
accompany  the  written  arithmetic,  step  by  step.  In  fact 
it  would  be  much  the  better  way  to  select  a  text-book 
that  contained  exercises  in  both  mental  and  written 
arithmetic.  In  mental  arithmetic  the  language  should 
be  clear,  and  the  words  enunciated  distinctly.  No 
hesitancy  should  be  permitted — pupils  should  pass 
through  the  solution  rapidly.  Pupils  should  be  re- 
quired to  construct  original  problems,  and  random 
exercises  should  be  given  by  the  teacher  in  addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division,  to  teach  rapid- 
ity and  accuracy  in  computation. 


258  AKITHMETIC 

The  teacher  should  give  diversified  problems  of  a 
practical  nature  to  the  class. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  perfectly  barren  mathemati- 
Practicai  ca^  knowledge  in  this  country,  particularly 
application.  am0ng  those  who  have  studied,  not  for 
knowledge,  but  for  a  certificate  or  a  diploma. 

Not  unfrequently  do  we  meet  teachers  who  can  dem- 
onstrate problems  in  algebra  and  geometry,  who  at  the 
same  time  cannot  make  the  least  application  of  them. 
Again,  we  have  met  teachers  who  have  graduated  at  the 
higher  institutions  of  learning,  who  have  passed  over 
the  rules  of  arithmetic— finished  the  study — who  would 
be  unable  to  determine  how  many  feet  there  are  in  a 
board  12  feet  in  length  and  12  inches  wide. 

They  seem  to  be  unaware  that  the  rules  of  arithmetic 
were  ever  intended  for  any  practical  purpose. 

Knowledge,  so  confined  and  abstract,  is  of  doubtful 
Theory  and  utility,  even  as  a  mental  discipline.  Theory 
practice.  an(j  practice  should  be  united,  or  we  per- 
ceive nothing  of  the  beauties  of  mathematics.  "  De- 
tached propositions  and  abstract  mathematical  princi- 
ples give  us  no  better  idea  of  true  and  living  science 
than  detached  words  and  abstract  grammar  would  give 
us  of  poetry  or  rhetoric."  Small  acquirements  in  mathe- 
matics serve  only  to  make  us  timid,  cautious,  and  dis- 
trustful of  our  own  powers — but  a  step  or  two  further 
gives  us  life,  confidence,  and  power. 

Mathematics  should  not  be  studied  merely  for  disci- 
Mental  dis-  pline.  The  object  should  be  to  understand 
cipiine.  ^e  subject  and  make  it  useful.  Those  who 

teach  with  no  other  view  than  giving  discipline  to  the 
minds  of  their  pupils,  never  more  than  half  teach. 


FRACTIONS  259 

Let  a  person  undertake  the  study  of  any  science  with 
no  other  object  than  discipline  and  the  science  will  come 
to  him  with  difficulty.  But  let  him  begin  the  study 
determined  to  understand  it  and  avail  himself  of  it,  and 
the  science  will  come  to  him  with  ease,  and  with  it  a 
discipline  of  mind,  the  most  effective  he  can  attain. 

In  the  application  of  arithmetic  there  are  two  dis- 
tinct operations,  the  logical  and  the  median-  Logic  of 

arithmetic. 


In  too  many  schools  greater  attention  is  given  to  the 
mechanical.  To  some  extent  this  is  quite  necessary, 
and  pupils  should  be  made  very  familiar  with  elemen- 
tary processes  ;  but  after  they  become  expert  in  compu- 
tation, greater  attention  should  be  given  to  calculation, 
—  the  thinking.  The  undisciplined  direct  their  atten- 
tion more  to  the  doing  than  to  the  thinking,  wbsn  it 
should  be  the  reverse  ;  and  nearly  all  the  efforts  of  the 
good  teacher  are  directed  to  making  his  pupils  reason 
correctly.  If  a  person  fails  in  an  arithmetical  problem, 
the  failure  is  usually  in  the  logic,  for  false  logic  directs 
to  false  reasoning,  and  true  logic  points  out  true  opera- 
tions. 

II.     FRACTIONS 

It  is  well  to  introduce  the  study  of  fractions  by  ob- 
jective teaching.  For  this  purpose  the  best 

j      .  •         £  it.  £      r,-   -i       Objects  first. 

device  is  a  series  or  equal  spheres,  of  which 
one  is  whole,  another  is  divided  into  halves,  and  the 
others  into  thirds,  fourths,  fifths,  sixths,  eighths,  etc. 
These  have  been  provided  in  what  is  known  as  Davis's 
Fractional  Apparatus.  A  similar  but  less  perfect  device 
is  a  series  of  circles  correspondingly  subdivided.  Most 


260  ARITHMETIC 

teachers  will  have  to  make  use  of  apples  or  other  objects 
obtained  without  expense.     Whatever  is  used,  the  fol- 
lowing definitions  should  all  be  made  so  clear  that  every 
pupil  can  illustrate  them  by  the  objects  employed. 
The  term  UNITY  in  mathematical  science  is  applied 
to  any  number  or  quantity  regarded  as  a 

Definitions.  11,1  •          -n 

whole  ;  the  term  UNIT  in  arithmetic,  to  any 
number  that  is  used  as  the  base  of  a  collection. 

Every  number,  whether  integral  or  fractional,  has 
the  unit  1  for  a  primary  base. 

A  quantity  regarded  as  a  whole,  called  a  unit,  is  the 
primary  base  of  every  fraction. 

One  of  equal  parts  of  a  unit  called  the  fractional  unit, 
is  the  secondary  base  of  every  fractional  number. 

The  value  of  a  fraction  is  the  number  of  times  it  con- 
tains the  unit  1. 

The  quantity  or  unit  that  is  divided  into  equal  parts 
is  the  unit  of  the  fraction. 

One  of  the  equal  parts  is  called  &  fractional  unit. 

In  f  of  a  pound,  1  pound  is  the  unit  of  the  fraction, 
and  |  of  the  pound  the  fractional  unit. 

A  fractional  unit  or  a  collection  of  fractional  units  is 
a,  fraction.  (Or  a  fraction  may  be  considered  one  or 
more  of  the  equal  parts  of  a  unit,  these  parts  correspond- 
ing to  fractional  units.) 

Two  integers  are  required  to  express  a  fraction,  one 
above  a  short  horizontal  line  to  denote  the  number  of 
fractional  units,  called  the  numerator ;  it  numbers,  or 
expresses  how  many  are  taken.  The  other  below  the 
line,  expresses  how  many  fractional  units  it  is  divided 
into,  and  is  called  the  denominator  ;  it  denominates  or 


261 

names  and  expresses  how  many  fractional  units  are 
equal  to  a  unit. 

The  numerator  and  denominator  taken  together  are 
called  terms  of  the  fraction. 

Fractions  are  of  three  kinds,  common,  decimal  and 
duodecimal.  One  or  more  of  the  equal  parts  of  a  quan- 
tity, expressed  by  two  numbers,  one  written  above  the 
other  with  a  line  between  them,  is  a  common  fraction — 
J,  T5^  and  f. 

Its  denominator  is  other  than  ten,  or  some  power  of 
ten. 

A  fractional  number,  whose  value  is  less  than  a  unit, 
is  &  proper  fraction,  as  f,  f.  It  is  so  termed  because  it 
expresses  a  value  less  than  1.  An  improper  fraction 
is  not  properly  a  fraction  of  a  unit,  the  value  expressed 
being  equal  to  or  greater  than  1. 

A  single  fraction,  either  proper  or  improper,  is  a 
simple  fraction,  f,  f. 

A  fraction  of  a  fraction,  or  several  fractions  joined  by 
of,  is  termed  a  compound  fraction,  as  2-4  of  7-8  of  3-12. 

A  fraction  in  the  numerator,  or  denominator,  or  both, 

2.  s 
is  termed  a  complex  fraction,  as  ?,? 

"5"  ¥ 

Unity  divided  by  any  number  is  termed  a  reciprocal ; 
thus  the  reciprocal  of  4  is  J. 

An  integral  number  added  to  a  fractional  number  is 
termed  a  mixed  number,  as  3+f,  7+f.  The  sign  of 
addition  is  usually  omitted. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 

1.  Multiplying  the  numerator  increases  the  value  of 
the  fraction. 


262  ARITHMETIC 

Because  it  increases  the  number  of  fractional  units  while  the 
value  of  the  fractional  unit  remains  the  same. 

2.  Multiplying  the  denominator  decreases  the  value 
of  the  fraction. 

Because  it  diminishes  the  value  of  the  fractional  unit,  while 
the  number  remains  the  same  ;  it  diminishes  the  value  of  the  frac- 
tional unit  because  the  unit  of  the  fraction  is  divided  into  a 
greater  number  of  fractional  units,  and  each  fractional  unit  is  as 
many  times  less  in  value  as  there  are  units  in  the  multiplier. 

3.  Multiplying  both  numerator  and  denominator  by 
the  same  number  does  not  alter  the  value  of  the  fraction. 

Because  it  increases  the  number  of  fractional  units,  as  many 
times  as  it  decreases  the  value  of  the  fractional  unit ;  that  is  in  the 
same  ratio. 

4.  Dividing  the  numerator  decreases  the  value  of  the 
fraction. 

Because  it  diminishes  the  number  of  the  fractional  units,  while 
the  value  of  the  fractional  unit  remains  the  same. 

5.  Dividing  the  denominator  increases  the  value  of 

the  fraction. 

• 

Because  it  increases  the  value  of  the  fractional  unit,  while  the 
number  remains  the  same  ;  it  increases  the  value  of  the  fractional 
unit  because  the  unit  of  the  fraction  is  divided  into  a  less  number 
of  fractional  units,  each  fractional  unit  being  as  many  times 
greater  in  value  as  there  are  units  in  the  divisor. 

6.  Dividing  both  numerator  and  denominator  by  the 
same  number  does  not  alter  the  value  of  the  fraction. 

Because  it  diminishes  the  number  of  fractional  units  as  many 
times  as  it  increases  the  value  of  the  fractional  unit. 

7.  If  the  numerator  be  multiplied  by  any  number, 
the  number  of  fractional  units  will  be  increased  as  many 
times  as  there  are  units  in  the  multiplier. 


FRACTIONS  263 

8.  If  the  numerator  be  divided  by  any  number,  the 
number  of  fractional  units  will  be  diminished  as  many 
times  as  there  are  units  in  the  divisor. 

9.  If  the  denominator  be  multiplied  by  any  number, 
the  fractional  units  will  be  diminished  as  many  times  as 
there  are  units  in  the  multiplier. 

10.  If  the  denominator  be  divided  by  any  number,  the 
value  of  the  fractional  units  will  be  increased  as  many 
times  as  there  are  units  in  the  divisor. 

Naming  the  quantity  or  unit  divided,  the  value  of 
one  of  its  fractional  units,  the  number  of     Analysis  of 
fractional  units,  the  denominator,  numerator     a  fraction- 
and  the  terms  of  the  fraction,  is  to  analyze  a  fraction. 
Thus: 

Analyze  the  fraction  £. 

|  is  a  fraction  because  it  expresses  4  of  the  equal  parts  of  a 
unit.  1  is  the  unit  of  the  fraction,  or  the  unit  that  is  divided  to 
form  the  fraction.  £  is  the  fractional  unit,  or  one  of  the  equal 
parts  of  the  unit  divided.  5  is  the  denominator ;  it  names  the 
parts  ;  it  shows  that  the  unit  is  divided  into  5  equal  parts  ;  it  tells 
the  size  or  value  of  each  part.  4  is  the  numerator ;  it  numbers 
the  parts  taken  to  form  the  fraction  ;  it  is  written  above  the  line. 
4  and  5  are  the  terms  of  the  fraction,  and  its  value  is  4-5-5. 

PROCESSES 

Fractions  are  reduced  to  their  lowest  terms      Lowest 
as  follows  :  terms- 

Reduce  Jf  to  its  lowest  terms. 
16-4-4  _  4 
20-4-4  ~  5 

Dividing  ^f  by  | -=%  ;  as  the  numerator  and  denominator  are 
prime  to  each  other,  the  fraction  is  reduced  to  its  lowest  terms. 
This  depends  upon  the  following  principle  :  Dividing  both  terms 
of  the  fraction  by  the  same  number  does  not  alter  the  value  of 


264  ARITHMETIC 

the  fraction,  because  the  number  of  fractional  units  is  decreased 
as  many  times  as  the  valiw  of  the  fractional  unit  is  increased. 
(Deduce  the  rule.) 

Reduction  of  Improper  fractions  are  reduced  to  integer 
frSons.  or  mixed  numbers  as  follows  : 

Reduce  -f-  to  an  integral  number. 

ifJL  -i-  *  =  25,  or  5,  ip  =  -^  =  25. 

In  1  there  are  5  fifths  ;  in  125  fifths,  as  many  ones  as  5  is  con- 
tained times  in  125,  or  25.  This  depends  upon  the  following 
principle  :  Dividing  both  terms  of  the  fraction  by  the  same  num- 
ber does  not  alter  the  value  of  the  fraction  ;  the  same  reason  as 
when  we  reduce  fractions  to  their  lowest  terms.  (Deduce  the 
rule.) 

integers  Integers  or  mixed  numbers  are  reduced  to 

improper  fractions  as  follows  : 

Reduce  49|  to  fifths. 
I  X  49  =  if* 

145+|   =   147 

In  one  there  are  5  fifths  ;  in  49  ones,  49  times  5  fifths,  or  245 
fifths  ;  plus  2  fifths  equals  247  fifths.  This  depends  on  the  follow- 
ing principle  :  Multiplying  both  terms  of  the  fraction  by  the  same 
number  does  not  alter  the  value  of  the  fraction,  because  the  num- 
ber of  fractional  units  is  increased  as  many  times  as  the  value  of 
the  fractional  unit  is  decreased.  (Deduce  the  rule.) 

common  Fractions  are  reduced  to  a  common  de- 

denominator.  nominator  as  follows  : 

Reduce  £,  f ,  f ,  V- 

3X  24  _  72_ 
5~>T24  ~  120 
3X  20  _  _60_ 
6X  20  ~~  120 
4X  15  ^ 
8  X  15  ~~  120 
15  X  30  _  450 
4  X  30  ~~  120 


FRACTIONS  265 

The  least  common  multiple  of  the  denominators  is  120  ;  divid- 
ing the  least  common  multiple  by  the  denominator  of  the  first 
fraction,  we  have  the  quotient  24  ;  multiplying  both  terms  of  the 
fraction  by  24,  we  have  T7^.  This  depends  upon  the  following 
principle  :  multiplying  both  terms  of  the  fraction  by  the  same 
number,  does  not  alter  the  value  of  the  fraction,  because  it  in- 
creases the  number  of  fractional  units  as  many  times  as  it  decreases 
the  value  of  the  fractional  unit.  (The  same  analysis  for  the  re- 
maining fractions.) 

Fractions  may  be  added  as  follows  :  Addition. 

Add  f  and  }. 

l+|  =  f=  If 

As  the  fractions  have  the  same  fractional  unit,  we  may  add  the 
numerators  ;  f  +  f  =  f  =  1  J- 

Add  |  and  f  . 

As  the  fractions  f  and  f  h&ve  different  fractional  units,  first  re- 
duce them  to  fractions  having  the  same  fractional  unit,  f  is 
equal  to  f  f  ;  f  equal  to  f  f  ;  now  as  the  fractions  are  of  the  same 
fractional  unit  value,  we  may  add  the  numerators  :  f  f  -f-  Jf  =  f-J 
=  Iff-  (Deduce  the  rule.) 

One  fraction  is  subtracted  from  another  as 

,  ,,  Subtraction. 

follows  : 

Subtract  f  from  }. 

B  -  A  =  A- 

The  fractions  f  and  f  have  different  fractional  units.  First 
reduce  the  fractions  to  the  same  fractional  unit  value,  £  equals 
IS;  f  is  equal  to  •£$  ;  as  the  fractions  are  of  the  same  fractional 
unit  value,  we  may  subtract  one  numerator  from  the  other,  giv- 
ing us  •£•$.  (Deduce  the  rule.) 

Fractions  are  multiplied  by  an  integer  as  Multiplication 

follows:  by  an  integer. 

Multiply 


___ 
16         "  16  ~~  2 
2_  _  2  _  1 

16  _*.  4  -  4  ~  2 


266  ARITHMETIC 

Multiplying  T2^  by  4,  by  multiplying  the  numerator  is  equal  to 
T8T  or  |.  This  depends  upon  Principle  1.  Multiplying  the  num- 
erator increases  the  value  of  the  fraction,  because  it  increases  the 
number  of  fractional  units,  while  the  value  of  the  fractional  unit 
remains  the  same. 

Again,  multiplying  T\  by  4,  by  dividing  the  denominator,  is 
equal  to  £  or  £.  This  depends  upon  Principle  5.  Dividing  the 
denominator  increases  the  value  of  the  fraction,  because  it  in- 
creases the  value  of  the  fractional  unit,  while  the  number  remains 
the  same ;  it  increases  the  value  of  the  fractional  unit,  because 
the  unit  of  the  fraction  is  divided  into  a  less  number  of  fractional 
units,  and  each  fractional  unit  is  as  many  times  greater  in  value 
as  their  are  units  in  the  divisor.  (Deduce  the  rule.) 

Multiplication     ^e  multiply  a  whole  number  by  a  fraction 

by  a  fraction.   as  follows  : 

Multiply  24  by  f . 

a.  I  X  24  =  2¥4 

V  X  2  =  V  =  16. 

b.  i  of  24  =  8 
8  X  2  =  16. 

c.  24  X  2  =  48 
48  -f-  3  =  16. 

a.  Once  24  is  24  ;  -J-  times  24  is  ^  ;  f  times  24  is  2  times  Y  or 
-V-  =  16,  Ans. 

b.  J  of  24  is  8  ;  f ,  2  times  8  or  16,  Ans. 

c.  Multiplying  24  by  2  =  48  ;  as  the  multiplier  is  three  times 
too  great  in  value,  the  product  is  three  times  too  great  in  value. 
To  give  the  correct  value  divide  by  3,  which  gives  us  16,  Ans. 
(Deduce  a  rule.) 

NOTE. — See  that  the  pupil  understands  that  f  of  1  is  the  same 
as  J  of  2. 

We  multiply  one  fraction  by  another  as  follows  : 
Multiply  f  by  {. 

a.  f  X  |  or  1  =  f . 
f  X  i  -  A- 

A  x  •  =  if 


FRACTION'S  26? 

b.  f  x  5  =  y. 
V5  x  8=15. 

a  %  multiplied  by  f  or  1  =  f ;  ?  multiplied  by  •£•  is  equal  to  ^. 
Since  f  multiplied  by  |  is  equal  to  /?,  f  multiplied  by  f  will  be 
equal  to  5  times  /F  or  ^f . 

b.  Multiplying  f  by  J  is  the  same  as  multiplying  by  the  eighth 
part  of  5.  First  multiply  f  by  5  =  *f- ;  as  the  multiplier  is  eight 
times  too  great  in  value  the  product  will  be  eight  times  too  great 
in  value  ;  hence  to  get  its  required  value  divide  -1/-  by  8,  by  mul- 
tiplying the  denominator,  which  gives  J-f 

We  divide  a  fraction  by  an  integer  as  f ol-    Division  by 

lows  :  an  integer- 

Divide  f  by  3. 

a.  6  -f-  3  =  2 
7  7. 

5.6  i       ? 

7  X  3  =  21  =  7. 

Dividing  f  by  3  =  f  ;  according  to  the  principle  which  says  : 
Dividing  the  numerator  decreases  the  value  of  the  fraction,  be- 
cause it  diminishes  the  number  of  fractional  units,  while  the  value 
of  the  fractional  unit  remains  the  same. 

Again,  dividing  |  by  3,  by  multiplying  the  denominator  is 
equal  to  /T ;  multiplying  the  denominator  decreases  the  value  of 
the  fraction,  because  it  decreases  the  value  of  the  fractional  unit, 
while  the  number  of  fractional  units  remain  the  same  ;  it  dimin- 
ishes the  value  of  the  fractional  unit,  because  the  unit  of  the  frac- 
tion is  divided  into  a  greater  number  of  fractional  units,  and  each 
fractional  unit  is  as  many  times  less  in  value  as  there  are  units  in 
the  multiplier.  (Deduce  the  rule.) 

We  divide  a  whole  number  by  a  fraction    Divisipn  by 
as  follows  : 

Divide  8  by  f . 

a.  I  X  8  =  -4/. 
V-  -  t  =  13f 

b.  8  -*-  3  =  2f 
2J  X  5  =  13i. 


268  ARITHMETIC 

a.  In  one  there  are  £ ;  in  8,  8  times  £  =  -4g°  ;  4g°  divided  by 
!=13i; 

b.  Divide  8  by  f ,  or  the  fifth  part  of  three ;  dividing  8  by  3 
gives  us  2£  ;  now  as  the  divisor  is  five  times  too  great  in  value, 
the  quotient  is  only  one-fifth  of  its  required  value  ;  to  get  its  re- 
quired value,  multiply  the  quotient  by  five,  which  gives  us  13^. 
(Deduce  the  rule. ) 

We  divide  a  fraction  by  another  fraction  as  follows  : 
Divide  £  by  f . 

a.  3  X  3  _  9  b.  3  _  3  c.    3  _  j)_ 

4  ~  4  4  X  2  ~  8  4  ~  12 

?  =  ?  =  14  ?  X  3  =  ?  =14  ?  =    J? 

4X28  8  8  3       12 

9-^=H 

12       12 

a.  1  is  contained  in  f ,  three-fourth  times  ;  i  is  contained  in  £ , 
three  times  £,  or  f  times ;  $-  will  be  contained  in  f ,  £  of  £ ,  or  £. 
times. 

b.  Dividing  £  by  2  gives  us  f  ;  as  the  divisor  is  three  times  too 
great  in  value,  the  quotient  is  only  |  of  its  required  value  ;  multi- 
plying the  quotient  f  by  3  gives  us  f  =  1|. 

c.  Reduce  f  and  $  to  a  common  denominator,     f  is  equal  to 
T9^  ;  f  is  equal  to  T8^  ;  T9^  divided  by  T\  is  equal  to  f  or  l£. 

III.     GENERAL  REMARKS 

It  is  not  expected  in  a  manual  for  teachers  to  explain 
suggestive  every  rule  in  arithmetic.  A  few  rules  have 
analyses.  been  carefully  explained  and  illustrated  in 
detail ;  and  these  are  suggestive  only.  The  plan  of  this 
work  has  been  to  give  a  course  of  reasoning  leading  to 
those  conclusions  from  which  rules  are  drawn, — and  this 
is  given  in  language  free  from  technicalities,  and  easy 
to  be  understood. 

The  explanations  are  so  given  as  to  put  the  pupil  into 
the  place  of  the  original  reasoner,  until  he  arrives  at  a 


GENERAL   REMARKS  269 

conclusion  from  which  he  can  deduce  the  rule  for  him- 
self. 

After  the  pupils  are  familiar  with  the  process  and 
have  received  sufficient  drill,  they  should  be  Exactness  in 
taught  to  analyze  problems.  The  teacher  language, 
should  see  that  the  analysis  is  thoroughly  understood 
and  accurately  recited.  Pupils  should  be  required  to 
write  out  an  analysis,  and  the  pupil  that  presents  the 
most  simple  and  concise  analysis  should  write  it  on  the 
board,  subject  to  the  criticism  of  the  class.  See  that 
the  language  is  used  correctly  ;  that  it  tells  "  the  truth, 
the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth".  Now  you 
may  if  you  choose  require  every  member  of  the  class  to 
commit  this  approved  analysis  verbatim,  for  it  will  mean 
something  to  them. 

There  are  teachers  who  allow  a  wide  range  in  the 
forms  of  analysis  as  long  as  the  language  is  good  and  the 
reasoning  logical.  While  we  should  insist  upon  the 
development  of  individuality  and  originality  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils,  yet,  as  mathematics  is  an  exact  science, 
the  language  used  in  the  analysis  should  be  exact. 

I  cannot  see  how  language  may  be  cultivated  if  the 
teachers  allow  a  wide  range  in  the  use  of  words ;  I  call 
that  the  best  analysis  which  is  the  most  simple  and 
concise. 

It  is  very  common  for  the  pupil  to  suppose  that  to 
explain  an  example  simply  means  to  state 

,.  r    ,  Analysis 

what  operations — what   processes — are  per-    more  than 
formed  in  reaching  the  results.     Hence,  he 
will  consider  it  an  unreasonable  question  if  asked  why 
he  added  or  subtracted,  multiplied  or  divided, 


270  ARITHMETIC 

Such  an  explanation  should  never  be  accepted.  To 
explain  a  problem,  means  to  assign  a  reason  for  each  of 
the  several  steps.  I  have  heard  the  following  given  as 
an  analysis  to  a  problem  in  division  of  fractions  : 

Divide  £  by  £ . 

"Invert  the  terms  of  the  divisor  and  proceed  as  in  multipli- 
cation." 

The  rule  tells  how  to  solve  the  problem  ;  the  analysis 
gives  the  reason  for  each  step. 

A  large  number  of  pupils  who  pass  through  the  entire 
Practical  arithmetical  course  in  our  best  schools  fail 
work-  to  make  application  of  their  knowledge. 

This  is  owing  to  a  lack  of  practical  application  of  the 
rules.  For  example,  let  them  measure  the  school-room, 
find  out  the  area,  measure  the  yard,  fields,  etc.;  in  all 
the  tables  make  a  practical  application  at  the  time. 

Too  much  time  is  wasted  in  solving  problems  in  con- 
tinued addition,  multiplication,  division  ;  I  have  known 
a  class  to  linger  a  week  upon  casting  out  the  9's  in 
addition.  All  such  subjects  as  these  and  many  others, 
like  circulating  decimals;  true  remainder,  foreign  ex- 
change, alligation,  algebraical  and  geometrical  prob- 
lems, should  be  omitted  in  our  public  schools.  By 
those  who  wish  to  pursue  advanced  studies,  the  subjects 
quoted  may  be  studied  ;  but,  as  a  majority  of  the  pupils 
leave  school  at  the  average  age  of  twelve  years,  they 
should  be  drilled  upon  the  subjects  that  they  will  be 
obliged  to  use  through  life. 

Pupils  should  be  put  to  the  test  in  many  ways  ;  the 
Frequent  skilful  teacher  will  not  only  examine  the 
tests.  pupils,  but  cross-examine  them.  The  teacher 

should  call  for  original  problems;  should  encourage 


GENERAL    REMARKS  271 

variety  of  solutions  ;  should  never  leave  a  subject  until 
the  pupils  are  able  to  make  ready  application  of  it. 

Pupils   should   be   made   familiar  with  the  simplest 
forms  of  commercial  paper  ;  should  be  able    Business 
to  write  a  negotiable  note,  to  cash  interest    forms- 
upon  notes  where  partial  payments  have  been  made,  to 
find  the  profit  and  loss  upon  articles  bought  and  sold. 
When  practicable  bring  in  real  notes  given  and  held  by 
men  whom  the  pupils  know.     No  subject  is  fully  mas- 
tered by  the  pupil  until  he  is  able  to  make  use  of  it  in 
this  manner. 


Whatever  text-books  are  used,  many  outside  problems  should 
be  given.  Among  the  books  of  problems  published  the  best  are 
"The  Regents'  Questions"  from  the  first  examination  in  1866  to 
June,  1882.  Complete  with  Key,  pp.  473.  $2.00.  "  The  Regents' 
Questions  in  Arithmetic  only,"  in  book  form,  25  cts.;  Key  25  cts. 

Next  to  the  Regents'  Questions  in  value  come  the  Uniform  Ex- 
amination Questions  of  the  State  of  New  York,  like  the  Regents' 
Questions  prepared  with  great  care  by  experts,  and  in  three 
grades  of  difficulty.  They  are  published  in  three  volumes  :  ' '  The 
New  York  Question  Book",  giving  the  questions  from  the  begin- 
ning to  March  31,  1890,  pp.  461,  $2.00;  "  Supplement  No.  1", 
from  April,  1890,  to  June,  1891,  pp.  163,  25  cts.;  and  "  Supple- 
ment No.  2",  from  Aug.,  1881,  to  June,  1892,  pp.  139,  25  cts. 
They  give  answers,  and  cover  29  subjects,  the  number  of  ques- 
tions in  arithmetic  being  958.  Subsequent  questions  are  published 
monthly  in  The  School  Bulletin. 

Another  collection  of  great  convenience  to  the  teacher  is  Ed- 
wards's  "500  Every  Day  Business  Problems,"  price  50  cts.  These 
are  on  slips  of  card-board  that  can  be  distributed,  one  box  serving 
for  an  entire  room.  A  Key  accompanies  them. 

In  all  the  above,  the  questions  are  promiscuous.  Those  who 
prefer  them  arranged  by  subjects  will  find  Prentice's  "  Review 
Problems  "  excellent.  They  cost  20  cts. 


GEOGRAPHY 


Geography  acquires  its  full  value  as  a  branch  of  edu- 
cation only  when  it  loses  the  character  of  an  accumula- 
tion of  facts,  undigested  by  the  child's  mind,  and  be- 
comes real  in  his  memory,  linked  by  association  with 
the  world  of  thought  and  action  which  immediately 
surrounds  it  or  that  which  is  within  it. 

Tell  the  child  to  observe  the  lines  of  the  map  which 
hangs  perpetually  before  his  eyes,  and  talk 

Make  it  real.  i>  i        *  *i  •  / 

to  him  only  of  the  names  upon  it,  and  you 
will  soon  weary  his  attention ;  but  speak  to  him  of  the 
living  men  who  inhabit  that  country, — tell  him  of  their 
stature  and  aspect  and  dress,  and  ways  of  life,  and  of 
their  forms  of  worship ;  speak  of  its  climate — of  the 
forms  of  vegetable  and  animal  life  with  which  his  eye 
would  be  conversant  if  he  dwelt  there — of  trees  and 
flowers,  and  you  excite  him  to  a  new  life. 

FIEST  STEPS  IN  TEACHING  GEOGEAPHY 

I.  Talk  about  the  earth  as  a  whole — of  what  it  is 
composed  and  what  may  be  found  upon  it. 

The  heavens  catch  the  child's  attention  early,  and 
observation  ^e  wisnes  t°  know  about  the  sun,  moon  and 
first-  stars.  He  has  a  general  knowledge  of  the 

earth  ;  he  has  learned  something  about  land  and  water, 
varieties  of  surface,  the  location  of  places,  vegetable 

(272) 


GENERAL   NOTIONS    OF  THE   EAKTH  273 

products  natural  and  cultivated,  and  the  animal  and 
mineral  kingdoms. 

These  things  may  be  said  to  comprise  the  elements  of 
geographical  study  ;  and  they  may  be  made  the  subject 
of  direct  study  by  the  children. 

With  these,  the  study  of  geography  may  begin  not 
~by  learning  words  from  a  book,  but  by  actual  observa- 
tion, guided  by  the  oral  instruction  of  the  teacher. 

In  teaching  the  first  steps  in  geography,  explain  to  the 
children  that   the  sun,  moon  and  stars  are    Theearth 
large  balls,  and  that  they  resemble  the  ball    in  sPace- 
we  live  upon.     Tell   them  that  we   call  this  ball  the 
earth,  and  "the  earth  hangeth  upon  nothing/'  floating 
free  in   space  like  a  bird  in  the  air.     To  excite  the 
pupils'   curiosity  and  give  them  a  correct  idea  of  the 
form  of  the  earth,  blow  a  few  soap-bubbles    Use  of  soap. 
before  them,  and  let   them  float  in  the  air.    bubbles. 
Tell  them  that  a  body  of  the  shape  of  a  ball  is  called  a 
globe  or  a  sphere.     Talk  about  the  outside  of  different 
objects  and  tell  them  that  the  outside  of  an  object  is 
called  the  surface.     The  outside  of  the  earth  is  called 
the  surface  of  the  earth. 

The  immense  magnitude  of  the  great  globe  they  can- 
not as  yet  imagine  ;  at  first  be  content  to  see  that  they 
understand  its  form  and  motion. 

Let  the  children  see  that  if  they  should  walk  on  the 
earth  a  certain  number  of  hours  or  days  in    Landand 
any  direction,  they  would  come  to  the  water.    water- 

They  will  now  see  that  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
composed  of  land  and  water. 

Tell  them  the  fact  that  one-fourth  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face is  land  and  three-fourths  are  water. 


274  GEOGRAPHY 

Now  explain  to  the  child  the  figures  on  the  globe  ; 
point  out  which  is  meant  for  land;  which  for  water ; 
and  show  him  his  own  country. 

Draw  an  oblong  figure  upon  the  board  and  divide  it 
colored  'm^°  ^our  Par^s^  ^  three  parts  represent 

crayon.  water  and  one  part  the  land.     Draw  a  circle 

upon  the  board  and  let  three  parts  represent  the  water 
and  one  part  the  land.  Use  colored  chalk.  The  illus- 
trations will  tend  to  impress  the  correct  ideas  on  the 
mind.  "  Happy  illustrations  excite  curiosity." 

Now,  on  looking  at  the  globe,  the  first  thing  that  must 
strike  every  one  is,  how  much  more  water  there  is  on  it 
than  dry  land.  Tell  the  children  that  we  may  ride  for 
days  and  weeks  on  water  and  not  see  any  land. 

Let  them  see  how  very  unequally  the  land  is  arranged  ; 
instead  of  being  spread  evenly  all  over  the  surface,  it  is 
collected  together,  some  portions  very  large  and  some 
very  small.  Let  them  see  the  roughness  of  the  fields 
and  roads  and  hills,  not  to  speak  of  the  high  mountains 
or  depths  of  the  sea. 

In  the  foregoing  account  we  have  spoken  of  the  earth 
shape  and  as  a  sPnere>  or  a  globe,  or  an  exactly  round 
size-  ball.  But  this  though  practically  true  for 

our  purpose,  is  not  strictly  correct,  for  the  earth  is  not 
exactly  round.  You  can  see  it  is  not.  On  so  big  a  ball 
as  the  earth  however,  these  things  do  not  count  for 
much.  The  earth,  although  so  large,  so  many  miles 
around  it,  may  be  travelled  over — we  can  go  around  it. 
A  train  of  cars  at  the 'rate  of  40  miles  an  hour  would 
pass  around  the  earth  in  about  26  days. 

Now,  ask  the  children  what  may  be  found  upon  the 


DIVISIONS   OF    MATTER  275 

surface  of  the  earth  ?  They  will  give  names 
to  the  different  kinds  of  matter,  such  as 
trees,  shrubs,  plants,  rocks,  and  horses,  cows,  etc. 

Let  them  see  that  the  different  things  named  may  be 
classified.     Tell  them  to  name  the  different    Divisions  of 
things  found  within   the  earth  that  do  not    matter- 
grow,  as  iron,  lead,  gold,  silver,  rocks,  pebbles,  sand, 
etc.     Tell  that  these  objects  belong  to  the   Mineral 
Glass. 

Tell  them  to  name  the  things  only  that  grow  out  of 
the  earth  :  as  trees,  plants,  shrubs  ;  the  different  kinds 
of  trees,  plants  and  shrubs.  Tell  them  that  these  ob- 
jects belong  to  the  Vegetable  Class. 

Tell  them  to  name  the  animals  that  are  found  on  the 
land,  in  the  water,  and  in  the  air.  Tell  them  that  these 
objects  belong  to  the  Animal  Class. 

Ask  the  children  which  class  they  belong  to,  and  tell 
them  wherein  they  differ.  That  plants  grow,  breathe, 
take  food  and  die.  That  brutes  do  the  same  ;  but  that 
men  differ  in  that  they  all  possess  a  mind  and  a  soul. 

Now  they  have  learned  :  Review. 

1.  The  earth  is  a  large  ball  or  sphere. 

2.  Its  surface  is  composed  of  land  and  water ;  one-fourth  is 
land  and  three-fourths  are  water. 

3.  Minerals,  vegetation,  and  animals  are  found  upon  the  earth. 

//.  Give  instruction  upon  the  relative  position  of 
objects  and  places. 

Draw  their  observation  to  relation,  position  or  place, 
beginning  with  the   situation  of  the  things    Relative 
which  they  see  around  them,  and  the  dis-    position, 
tances  of  these  from  each  other.     Question  the  children 
as  to  the  position  of  objects  before  them,  and  lead  them 


276  GEOGRAPHY 

to  describe  how  they  are  placed  with  regard  to  each,  as 
above,  below,  on  this  side  or  that  side,  etc.  The  teacher 
should  represent  the  positions  of  these  objects  on  the 
board  and  request  the  pupils  to  copy  the  representations 
on  their  slates.  These  exercises  will  prepare  them  to 
appreciate  the  value  of  the  map.  Proceed  with  fixed 
divisions  of  space.  Make  clear  the  limits  and  form  of 
its  boundaries. 

Study  the  position  of  objects  and  places  in  regard  to 
absolute  and  relative  distances.  Make  the  school  the 
first  division  of  space.  Map  with  accuracy  all  the  things 
learned,  and  have  the  pupils  reproduce  the  representa- 
tions. 

///.  Give  the  children  a  knowledge  of  the  cardinal 
points  of  the  compass  in  their  use  in  geographical 
description. 

When  children  have  been  accustomed  to  determine 
Points  of  ^ne  relative  position  of  objects,  they  must  be 
compass.  je(j  ^o  consider  places  in  the  same  point  of 
view ;  and  to  this  end  they  should  be  made  acquainted 
with  the  use  of  the  several  points  of  the  compass. 

Let  the  class  face  the  North.  Ask  them  to  point 
where  the  sun  rises  and  where  it  sets.  Tell  them  that 
the  place  in  the  heavens  where  it  rises  is  called  the  East 
— that  in  which  it  sets,  the  West.  Excite  them  to  ob- 
serve, both  at  home  and  at  school,  that  the  sun  rises 
in  the  East  and  sets  in  the  West. 

Close  the  lesson  by  a  simultaneous  repetition  : 

"That  direction  in  which  the  sun  rises  is  called  the 
East ;  and  that  in  which  it  sets,  the  West." 

Begin  the  next  lesson  with  a  repetition  of  the  preced- 
ing one.  Call  on  the  children  to  place  themselves  with 


POIKTS   OF   COMPASS 

their  right  hand  to  the  East  and  their  left  to  the  West, 
and  then  tell  them  that  the  point  directly  before  them 
is  the  North,  and  that  directly  behind  them  the  South. 

Ask  them  to  repeat  together  :  "  If  we  stand  with  our 
right  hand  to  the  East  and  our  left  hand  to  the  West, 
the  point  directly  before  us  is  the  North,  and  that  di- 
rectly behind  us  the  South. "  Ask  the  pupils  to  face 
the  East,  the  South,  the  West  and  the  North.  Let  the 
children  place  a  stick  or  draw  a  line  with  the  chalk  on 
the  floor,  in  the  directions  of  North,  South,  East  and 
West. 

In  such  exercises  the  object  is  to  occupy  only  so  much 
time  upon  each  new  idea  as  may  suffice  to  fix  it  in  the 
mind.  A  figure  should  be  drawn  on  the  board  repre- 
senting the  compass,  or  better  still  a  small  compass 
should  be  exhibited.  The  teacher  should  see  to  it  that 
the  children  are  firm  on  one  step  of  the  ladder  of  knowl- 
edge, before  they  proceed  to  another,  and  not  weary  and 
disgust  them  by  keeping  them  too  long  on  one  subject. 

When  we  wish  to  represent  the  situation  of  different 
places  on  paper  or  on  a  slate,  we  call  the  top  Semi_car(ji. 
North,  the  bottom  South,  the  right  hand  nal  P°ints- 
East  and  the  left  hand  West.  The  teacher  writes  the 
four  cardinal  points  on  the  board.  But  are  things  or 
places  always  exactly  at  the  North,  the  South,  the  East 
or  the  West  ?  Where  may  they  be  ?  They  may  be  be- 
tween any  two  of  these  points.  A  point  half-way  be- 
tween North  and  East  is  Northeast.  What  do  you 
think  half-way  between  North  and  West  is  called  ?  De- 
velop the  other  semi-cardinal  points  in  the  same  way. 
Drill  upon  the  above  facts.  Draw  a  square  on  the  board 


278  GEOGRAPHY 

and  let  the  children  mark  and  tell  the  cardinal  and 
semi-cardinal  points. 

Draw  a  circle  on  the  board  and  mark  off  the  principal 
and  intermediate  points. 

Let  the  teacher  draw  the  outline  of  the  room  on  the 
Mapping  the  ^oor  ^n  cna^^  an(l  mark  the  position  of  ob- 
room.  jec£s  wjthin  it;  and  when  a  map  of  the  room 

is  substituted,  place  it  first  in  a  horizontal  position. 

Let  the  pupils  place  the  different  articles  in  the  room 
along  the  northern,  eastern,  southern,  and  western 
boundaries. 

Eequire  them  to  draw  the  room  according  to  the 
same  scale,  and  mark  the  relative  positions  of  the  objects. 

Let  them  measure  the  length  of  the  school-room  by  a 
foot  measure  ;  see  that  it  is  correctly  done. 

Let  the  children  see  that  we  cannot  represent  the 
Scale  of  rep-  dimensions  of  the  room  on  the  board  by 
resentation.  using  the  scale  of  feet,  but  that  we  must  use 
the  scale  of  inches.  Now  let  one  foot  of  the  room  be 
represented  by  one  inch  on  the  slate  or  board.  If  the 
room  is  twelve  feet  long,  how  many  inches  shall  we 
make  our  line  on  the  slate  ?  Twelve.  Proceed  in  the 
same  manner  until  the  children  obtain  a  correct  idea  of 
a  scale.  For  example,  the  inch,  the  foot,  the  yard,  the 
rod,  and  the  mile. 

Teach  the  location  of  streets  and  the  directions  of 
them ;  the  public  building,  etc.  Let  the 

Mapping  the       ,  .,      '  f,     ,    .  ,  , 

neighbor-        children  see  that  in  geography  we  need  not 

say  top  and  bottom,  right  and  left,  but  we 

call  them  north,  south,  east  and  west.     When  you  are 

in  front  of  a  globe  or  map,  the  top  is  north,  the  bottom 


DEFINITIONS  279 

is  south,  the  right  hand  is  east,  and  the  left  hand  is 
west. 

IV.  Give  instruction  and  drill  upon  geographical 
definitions. 

Draw  an  irregular  figure  on  the  board  representing 
one  of  the  divisions  of  the  earth, — say  South  Land 
America.  In  drawing  the  coast,  (that  is,  a  ^visions, 
rib  or  side — the  edge  of  the  land  near  the  sea,)  make 
the  projections  and  indentations  prominent,  so  that  we 
may  be  able  to  use  the  figure  to  give  the  children  a  cor- 
rect idea  of  the  shape  of  land  and  water  divisions.  The 
larger  figure  will  represent  one  of  the  mainlands  of  the 
world,  as  distinguished  from  islands,  which,  though 
large,  are  still  evidently  surrounded  by  the  sea ;  and  it 
is  called  a  Continent. 

A  prominent  projection  of  land  from  the  coast, — not 
quite  an  island,  not  quite  surrounded  by  the  water,  is 
called  a  Peninsula.  It  projects  from  the  mainland  or 
body,  and  generally  is  quite  narrow  at  the  point  of  pro- 
jection and  gradually  widens.  Where  there  is  a  Penin- 
sula, there  ought  to  be  an  Isthmus,  which  is  a  neck  of 
land  connecting  it  with  the  mainland. 

Proceed  in  the  same  manner  to  develop  all  the  land 
divisions.  Continue  the  drill  until  all  the  children 
understand  what  is  meant  by  the  terms  used — such  as 
Continent,  Peninsula,  etc. 

Let  the  children  draw  many  figures,  until  they  are 
perfectly  familiar  with  all  the  land  divisions. 

Let  the  children  see  that  all  the  water  of  the  earth 
belongs  to  one  great  ocean,  sometimes  called    Water 
the  sea.     Tell  them  that   the  ocean  is  the    divisions, 
largest  body  of  water.     Talk  to  them  about  the  extent 


280  GEOGKAPHY 

of  the  ocean,  what  is  found  within  its  waters,  and  the 
great  thoroughfares  of  commerce. 

Draw  a  figure  with  a  prominent  indentation  in  the 
coast,  and  let  the  children  see  that  a  recess  in  the  coast 
is  called  a  Gulf  or  Bay.  The  gulf  is  usually  the  nar- 
rower and  deeper,  and  the  bay  the  broader  and  more  open 
of  the  two.  In  fact,  the  words  are  used  without  exact- 
ness of  distinction. 

A  narrow  passage  of  water  between  two  continents, 
not  very  deep,  is  called  a  Strait.  A  Sound  is  also  a 
narrow  passage  of  water  between  two  continents  or 
islands,  but  much  deeper.  All  of  the  water  divisions 
may  be  represented  on  the  board  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  convey  correct  impressions.  Develop  all  the  terms 
in  the  same  manner. 

The  teacher  should  not  be  content  until  these  terms 
Homeiiius-  are  thoroughly  understood  and  mastered. 

trations.   '         The  object  of  them  ^  ig  t()  teach  the  pupils 

about  the  earth,  and  they  are  of  no  use  if  they  do  not 
do  that.  Get  the  pupils  into  the  habit  of  looking  at  the 
country  itself,  finding  out  all  the  ideas  they  can  and 
what  they  all  mean. 

The  most  important  spot  for  us  all  in  this  and  many 
other  respects  is  our  homes.  What  sort  of  a  country  is 
it  ?  What  about  its  hills  and  mountains;  its  valleys  and 
plains ;  its  resources  and  thoroughfares  ?  Can  you 
answer  all  these  questions  ?  It  is  that  sort  of  inquiry, 
begun  at  your  own  home  and  gradually  inclining  to 
other  countries  and  scenes  till  you  know  all  about  them, 
that  is  the  useful  part  of  the  great  science  of  man  and 
nature  of  which  Geography  is  an  important  part.  Keep 


GENERAL   SUGGESTIONS  281 

your  eyes  open,  and  you  will  see  something  to  study 
every  day  of  your  life. 

The  first  study  of  geography  should  be  based  as  far  as 
possible  upon  what  the  pupils  can  see  about    General  sug. 
them.     Upon  this  basis  they  are  prepared  to    gestions. 
advance  to  the  study  of  what  they  cannot  see  but  must 
take  from  description — this  is  the  law  of  development. 

I.  Teach  direction,  and  apply  it  to  the  school-house 
and  immediate  surroundings. 

II.  Teach  dimensions,  especially  the  smaller  denomina- 
tions, with  frequent  tests.    Direction  and  dimensions  are 
essential  to  conception  of  space  and  distances  in  space. 

III.  Proceed  with  fixed   divisions  of  space.     Make 
clear  the  form  of  its  boundaries. 

Study  the  position  of  things  within  the  space  in 
regard  to  distances  and  directions.  Make  the  school- 
room the  first  division  of  space.  Map  with  accuracy 
all  the  things  learned ;  base  your  teaching  on  map- 
drawing.  Buy  and  use  Miss  Wilkins's  "Teachers' 
Manual  of  Map-Drawing,"  and  follow  it. 

IV.  Take  the   school-house  grounds  as  the  second 
division  of  space  and  apply  the  preceding  principles  ; 
thence  in   succession  the   district,   the  township,  the 
county,  the  State,  the  nation,  the  world. 

V.  Study  the  vegetation,  the  animals,  and  the  min- 
erals of  the  smaller  spaces.     Give  names  and  uses,  dis- 
tinguishing the  wild  animals  and  vegetation  from  those 
which  are  cultivated. 

VI.  Study  the   occupations  and   the  trades  of  tne 
people. 

VII.  Study  the  manufactures  and  the  forces  employed 
in  driving  the  machinery. 


282  GEOGRAPHY 

VIII.  Study  the  commerce  and  the  transportation. 

IX.  Study  the  social,  religious,  and  political  organi- 
zations. 

The  above  may  be  all  taught  objectively,  for  examples 
of  them  come  within  the  perception  of  every  ordinary 
child,  if  he  be  but  taught  to  use  it. 

This  local  geography  should  be  studied  thoroughly 
before  undertaking  the  general  study  of  the  world  ;  it 
gives  the  basis  of  understanding  the  subjective  treat- 
ment. Then  : 

X.  Study  the  form,  size,  and  position  of  the  earth. 

XI.  Study  its  surface  in  respect  to  land  and  water 
and  their  relations. 

XII.  In  studying  particular  divisions  pursue  a  natural 
order,  viz. :  outlines,  surface,  climate,  vegetation,  min- 
erals, animals,  nations. 

Map-drawing.       In  Map-D  rawing  : 

1.  Begin  with  the  school-room  and  draw  a  plan  of  it 
on  the  board. 

2.  Draw  around  it  the  plan  of  the  yard. 

3.  Let  the  children  measure  the  dimensions  of  the 
room  and  the  yard,  and  draw  the  plan  to  various  scales. 

4.  Draw  a  map  of  the  neighborhood,  village,  city,  etc. 

5.  Let  the*  pupils  indicate  the  various  streets,  public 
buildings,  etc. 

6.  GIVE  THOROUGH  DRILL. 

The  geography  often  taught  is  not  true  geography ; 

it  is  a  miserable  hotch-potch  of  insignificant 

fragments,  and  is  utterly  unworthy  the  great 

name  it  bears  and  the  time  it  occupies.     Gigantic  facts, 

magnificent  generalizations,  splendid  speculations,  in- 


ADVAHCED  TEACHING  283 

volving,  as  they  do,  the  mightiest  problems  in  several 
of  the  other  sciences,  are  certainly  not  fitting  food 
for  little  children's  minds.  Their  imaginations  are 
confounded  at  its  first  propositions.  The  huge  round 
world,  swinging  unsupported  in  limited  space,  and 
wheeling  with  an  inconceivable  velocity  along  its  track- 
less orbit,  parcelled  into  vast  expanses  of  continent  and 
still  vaster  oceans,  and  peopled  with  a  billion  of  human 
beings  :  what  a  conception  is  this  to  offer  to  a  little  child  ! 
Picture  it,  explain,  illustrate  it  as  we  will,  it  still  remains 
a  great  mystery  of  which  nothing  is  learned  but  the 
vaguest  ideas.  Nor  are  its  later  problems  less  difficult 
than  these  first  and  fundamental  notions.  The  alter- 
nations of  day  and  night,  with  their  varying  lengths  in 
different  latitudes  and  different  seasons  ;  the  variety  and 
succession  of  the  seasons  and  their  relation  to  climate ; 
the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  ;  the  movements  of  the 
tides ;  the  flow  of  the  oceanic  currents ;  the  sweep  of 
the  winds  ;  the  great  laws  of  climate  ;  the  geographical 
distribution  of  plants  and  animals,  and  the  migrations 
and  varying  civilizations  of  the  human  race  :  these 
surely  are  not  questions  for  mere  tyros  in  learning  and 
novices  in  study  to  solve. 

II.     ADVANCED  GEOGRAPHY 

In  Advanced  Geography  facts  have  to  be  classified, 
generalizations  to  be  made,  laws  to  be  dis-  Physlcal 
covered  and  the  connection  of  causes  and  features  first, 
effects  to  be  established.  It  is  now  clearly  understood 
that  the  most  profitable  way  of  teaching  the  geography 
of  a  country  is  to  take  up  its  physical  features  first,  and 
then  the  facts  which  depend  upon  them.  To  be  made 


284 

acquainted  with  the  physical  features  of  a  country  is  as 
necessary  to  a  geographer  as  the  knowledge  of  the  bones 
and  great  blood  vessels  of  the  human  frame  is  to  the 
anatomist.  In  order  to  understand  the  real  geography 
of  a  country, — its  organic  structure,  so  to  call  it,  the 
form  of  its  skeleton — that  is,  of  its  hills ;  the  magnitude 
and  course  of  its  veins  and  arteries, — that  is  of  its 
streams  and  rivers,  one  should  conceive  it  as  a  ivhole 
made  up  of  connected  parts  ;  and  then  the  position  of 
man's  dwellings,  viewed  in  reference  to  these  parts, 
becomes  at  once  easily  remembered,  and  intelligible. 

The  use  of  the  blackboard  in  teaching  geography  is 
Blackboard  now  general-  I^s  relation  to  the  use  of  maps 
and  maps.  js  better  understood  than  it  was.  It  fur- 
nishes the  means  of  exhibiting  any  portion  of  a  map  on 
a  larger  scale,  and  bringing  out  prominently  any  feature 
that  may  be  required, — the  usual  maps  being  often 
confusing  because  so  crowded. 

By  means  of  colored  chalk,  the  separate  classes  of 
colored  ^ac^s  may  ^e  ^eP^  distinct  an(^  their  relation 
crayon.  more  clearly  shown.  All  facts  presented  to 
the  eye  are  impressed  on  the  mind.  "  The  faithful 
sight  engraves  the  knowledge  with  a  beam  of  light." 

In  the  treatment  of  this  subject,  we  associate  Physi- 
cal and  Political  Geography  as  inseparable — as  one  sub- 
ject ; — with  this  fact  overlooked  geography  becomes  a 
mass  of  meaningless  details,  without  either  cause  or 
correlation,  while  its  study  degenerates  into  mere  rote 
work.  We  take  as  an  illustration  the  study  of  a  single 
division. 


THE   NEW    WOULD 


285 


The  New 
World. 


STUDY  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 

America  lies  between  the  two  largest  oceans  on  the 
globe — the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic,  and 
stretches  from  north  to  south  a  distance  of 
more  than  9000  miles.  Compared  with  its  length,  it  is 
extremely  narrow.  There  are  certain  distinctly  marked 
contrasts  between  the  New  World  and  the  Old  ;  and  it 
may  be  well  to  take  notice  of  these  first  of  all.  Let  us 
compare  them. 

AMERICA  and  EURASIA 


1.  Has  its  greatest  length  from  north 

to  south. 

2.  Its  greatest  mountain-chains  run 

from  north  to  south. 

3.  Is  a  continent  of  great  plains. 

4.  The  American  Plains  are  open  to 

the  sea  and  the  sea-winds. 

5.  America  has  no  vast  deserts. 


6.  America  decreases  in  breadth  as 

it  goes  south. 

7.  America  lies  in  both  hemispheres 

—northern  and  southern. 

8.  America  runs  through  four  zones. 

9.  The   heart  of   each   of  the  two 

Americas  is  connected  with  the 
sea  by  rivers. 

10.  America  is  the  "  land  of  promise  " 
and  of  the  future. 


1.  Has  its  greatest  length  from  west 

to  east. 

2.  Its    chief    mountain-ranges    run 

from  west  to  east. 

3.  Is  a /continent  of  immense  and 

elevated  plateaus. 

4.  The  Eurasian  Plateaus  are  shut 

off  from  sea  influences. 

5.  Eurasia  has  the  largest  deserts  on 

the  globe  (with  the  exception 
of  Africa.) 

6.  Eurasia  remains   nearly   of    the 

same  breadth  in  all  longitudes. 

7.  Eurasia  is  confined  to  the  north- 

ern hemisphere. 

8.  Eurasia  lies  mostly  in  the  North 

Temperate  Zone. 

9.  The  middle  of  Asia  is  a  closed 

basin,  which  sends  no  rivers  to 
the  sea. 

10.  Eurasia  is   the   land  of   accom- 
plished fact  and  of  the  past. 


America  has  an  area  of  16|  millions  of  square  miles, 
and  is  larger  than  Europe  and  Africa  taken  together. 
The  northern  continent  contains  about  9  millions  ;  and 
the  southern  about  7. 


286  GEOGRAPHY 

(i)  The  four  extreme  points  of  the  American  continent  are  :— 
(a)  Murchison  Peninsula,  hi  the  north  ; 
(&)  Cape  Froward,  in  the  south  ; 

(c)  Cape  Branco,  on  the  east ; 

(d)  Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  on  the  west, 
(ii)  The  most  remarkable  breadths  are  :— 

(a)  In 45°  North  lat.,  3100  miles  across; 
(6)  In  5°  South  lat.,  3200  miles  across ; 
(c)  At  Panama,  28  miles  across. 

(iii)  America  is  4  times  as  large  as  Europe ;  5  times  Australia ;  and 
times  Africa.    But  it  is  a  good  deal  smaller  than  Asia. 

North  America  is  the  northern  division  of  the  New 
World.     It  is  connected  with  South  America 
by  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.     In  shape  and 
character  it  is  not  unlike  South  America  ;  and  the  fol- 
lowing points  of  resemblance  between  the  two  ought  to 
be  noted  : — 

NORTH  AMERICA  and  SOUTH  AMERICA. 


1.  North  America  is  an  irregular  tri- 

angle. 

2.  On  its  west  coast,  there  is  a  high 

range  of  volcanic  mountains. 

3.  Parallel  with  the  east  coast,  runs  a 

lower  range. 

4.  The  middle  of  the  continent  is  oc- 

cupied by  a  vast  plain  from  the 
Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico. 

5.  The  St.  Lawrence  flows  from  west 

to  east;  the  Mississippi  from 
north  to  south. 


1.  South   America  is  a  regular   tri- 


2.  On  its  west  coast,  there  is  a  high 

range    which    contains    many 
volcanoes. 

3.  Parallel  with  the  east  coast,  runs  a 

secondary  range. 

4.  The  middle  of  the  continent  is  oc- 

cupied by  a  vast  plain  from  the 
Caribbean  Sea  to  the  La  Plata. 


5.  The  Amazon  flows  from  west  to 
east ;  the  La  Plata  from  north 
to  south. 


North  America  has  a  roughly  triangular  shape,  with 
Form  and  ^s  ^ase  near  ^s  northern  line,  and  its  acutest 
Extent.  angle  stretching  to  the  south.  It  contains 

about  8,600,000  square  miles— less  than  half  the  extent 
of  Asia. 

(i)  Its  greatest  length  is  4500  miles, 
(ii)  Its  greatest  breadth  on  45°  North  lat.,  is  3100  miles. 


AMEEICA 


287 


The  build  of  North  America  is  extremely  simple.  On 
the  west,  there  is  a  lofty  table-land  with  high  ranges  of 
mountains  ;  on  the  east,  a  lower  range  parallel  with  the 
coast ;  and  between  the  two,  an  immense  plain,  which 
stretches  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  length  of  the  coast  line  of  North  America  is  es- 
timated at  24,500  miles.  The  eastern  coast  is  much 


288  GEOGRAPHY 

and  deeply  indented  ;  the  west  coast  is  comparatively 
regular. 

(i)  This  gives  1  mile  of  coast  line  to  each  350  square  miles  of  surface, 
(ii)  Europe  has  a  coast  line  twice  as  richly  developed  ;  Africa  has,  com- 
paratively, less  than  half  the  coast  line  of  North  America. 

The  eastern  coast  contains  the  mighty  re-entrances  of 
Bays  and  Baffin  Bay  ;  Hudson  Bay ;  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
iniets.  rence  ;  Bay  of  Fundy  ;  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ; 

and  the  Caribbean  Sea. — The  chief  opening  in  the  west 
coast  is  the  Gulf  of  California ;  in  the  north,  the  Gulf 
of  Boothia. 

(i)  Baffin  Bay  was  first  explored  in  1615  by  William  Baffin,  a  pilot  on 
board  the  ship  "  Discovery  "  in  search  of  the  North- West  Passage.  There  is 
a  great  deal  of  whale  and  seal-fishing  in  this  immense  bay,  which  is  open 
only  four  months  in  summer. 

(ii)  Hudson  Bay  was  discovered  in  1610  by  Henry  Hudson,  a  famous  sailor. 
His  men  mutinied  ;  put  him  and  his  son  in  an  open  boat ;  sent  them  adrift 
on  this  great  inland  sea  ;  and  they  were  never  heard  of  more. 

(iii)  The  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  is  the  estuary  of  the  mighty  river  St.  Law- 
rence, which  carries  off  the  surplus  xwater  of  the  Five  Great  Lakes.  It  is 
much  infested  by  fogs  in  summer,  and  by  ice  in  winter. 

(iv)  The  Bay  of  Fundy  is  a  narrow  arm  of  the  Atlantic,  between  Nova 
Scotia  and  New  Brunswick.  It  is  famous  for  its  strong  and  rapid  tides, 
which  sometimes  rise  and  fall  fully  70  ft. 

(v)  The  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  the  true  '*  Mediterranean  of  America  ".  It  is  a 
vast  caldron,  in  which  the  waters  from  the  Caribbean  Sea  are  heated  to 
over  90°  and  then  discharged  through  the  Florida  Pass,  to  spread  themselves 
as  the  ''Gulf  Stream"  over  the  North  Atlantic,  and  give  to  the  western 
shores  of  Europe  their  warm  climate. 

(vi)  The  Caribbean  Sea  is  the  great  inland  sea  which  lies  between  the  Great 
Antilles  and  the  continent  of  South  America.  It  is  entered  either  by  the 
4 'Windward  Passage  "  to  the  west  of  Hayti,  or  by  the  "  Mona  Passage  "  to 
the  east. 

(vii)  The  Gulf  of  California  is  a  long  and  very  narrow  gulf  on  the  west 
coast.  It  is  700  miles  long  and  in  some  parts  only  40  miles  broad. 

(viii)  The  Gulf  of  Boothia  is  an  immense  opening  between  the  Boothia 
Peninsula  and  Cockburn  Island.  It  was  discovered  by  the  famous  navigator 
Sir  John  Ross,  and  named  by  him  after  his  friend  Sir  Felix  Booth. 

The  chief  Straits  in   North   America  are  :  Hudson 
Strait ;    Davis  Strait ;   Barrow  Strait ;   and 

Straits.  ^   ,     .        a,      ., 

Behnng  Strait. 


NORTH     AMEEICA  289 

(i)  Hudson  Strait  connects  Hudson  Bay  with  the  Atlantic, 
(ii)  Davis  Strait  connects  Baffin  Bay  with  the  Atlantic.    It  is  thickly  beset 
with  icebergs,  which  come  down  from  the  west  coast  of  Greenland, 
(iii)  Barrow  Strait  connects  Baffin  Bay  with  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
(iv)  Behring  Strait  connects  the  Arctic  Ocean  with  the  Pacific,  and  divides 
the  continents  of  North  America  and  Asia.    It  is  about  50  miles  wide. 

There  are,  on  the  east  coast,  four  great  peninsulas  : — 
Labrador  ;  Nova  Scotia  ;  Florida  ;  and  Yu-    peninsuias 
catan  ;  on  the  west  coast,  two  : — Alaska,  and    and  CaPes- 
Lower  California.     The   most  important  Capes  are  on 
the  east  coast: — Cape  Eace  (in  Newfoundland);  Cape 
Sable  (in  Nova  Scotia);  Cape  Cod  (in  Massachusetts); 
Cape  Hatteras  (in  North  Carolina);  and  Cape  Sable  (in 
Florida). 

(i)  Labrador  is  a  triangular  peninsula  which  lies  in  the  same  latitude  as 
the  British  Isles— between  50°  and  60°  ;  and  yet  it  has  a  nine  months'  winter. 
This  is  due,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  absence  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  and,  on  the 
other,  to  the  presence  of  a  cold  current,  crowded  with  icebergs,  from  Davis 
Strait. 

(ii)  Yucatan  is  one  of  the  few  peninsulas  in  the  world  which  run  to  the 
north.  The  others  are  Jutland  in  Europe,  and  Cape  York  Peninsula  in 
Australia. 

(iii)  Other  capes  of  secondary  importance  are  :  (a)  On  the  East :  Fare- 
well ;  Charles  :  Breton ;  Catoche ;  Gracias-a-Dios.  (b)  In  the  North  :  Barrow 
and  Bathurst.  (c)  On  the  West :  Prince  of  Wales  (in  Alaska) ;  and  St.  Lucas 
(in  California). 

(iv)  Cape  Race  is  the  land  first  sighted  in  sailing  from  Britain  to  America. 
(v)  Cape  Sable  is  so  called  from  its  sandy  beach  (Fr.  sable,  sand). 

The  only  Isthmus  of  first  importance  in  North  Amer- 
ica is  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  which  joins 

~       .,  T   ^  ,     .  .  Isthmus. 

South  and  Central  America. 

(i)  Its  narrowest  breadth  is  about  30  miles.  The  great  French  engineer, 
M.  de  Lesseps,  attempted  to  cut  a  canal  through  it,  thus  saving  the  voyage 
round  the  whole  of  South  America,  and  revolutionizing  the  commerce  of  the 
Western  World.  But  though  he  had  already  cut  through  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez  and  shortened  the  voyage  to  India  by  saving  the  circuitous  course 
round  the  African  continent,  the  Panama  canal  has  thus  far  proved  a  failure. 

(ii)  Another  isthmus  of  some  importance  is  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec, 
between  the  Gulf  of  the  same  name  and  the  Bay  of  Campeachy.  It  is  140 
miles  across. 


290  GEOGRAPHY 

The  islands  on  the  east  coast  of  North  America  are 
much    the    most     important.      They    are : 

Islands.  .      . .         . .        -~   .  _JL* 

Anticosti ;  Prince  Edward  Island ;  New- 
foundland ;  the  Bermudas ;  and  the  West  Indies. — On 
the  north  lies  a  vast  archipelago,  the  largest  island  of 
which  is  Greenland. — On  the  west,  the  most  important 
island  is  Vancouver. 

(i)  The  largest  island  in  the  West  Indies  is  Cuba;  the  second,  Hayti ;  and 
the  third,  Jamaica. 

(ii)  Besides  Vancouver,  there  are,  on  the  west  coast,  the  Queen  Char- 
lotte Islands,  the  Sitka  Archipelago,  and  Prince  of  Wales  Island. 

The  western  part  of  the  North  American  continent  is 
one  vast  plateau.     The  well-marked  moun- 

Table-lands.          .  ,  .   ,  .  ,       ~  , 

tain-range  which  runs  through  Central 
America  branches  into  two  ranges  at  the  Isthmus  of 
Tehuantepec ;  and  these  two  ranges,  under  different 
names,  run  up  almost  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  supporting 
between  them  a  long  and  immense  table-land.  The 
highest  table-land  in  the  whole  system  is  the  Plateau  of 
Mexico,  which  is  about  9000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  The  best  known  is  the  continental  basin  which  is 
called  the  Plateau  of  Utah. 

North  America  has  two  great  systems  of  uplift ;  the 

Appalachian  System   and   the   Western    or 

Cordillera    System.      In    the    Appalachian 

System,  the  most  important  range  is  that  of  the  Alle- 

ghanies  ;  in  the  Western  System,  the  chief  range  is  the 

Rocky  Mountains. 

(i)  The  Appalachian  Mountains  begin  in  the  table-lands  of  Alabama, 
stretch  north-east  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  reappear  in  the  Plateau  of 
Labrador.  Their  best-known  ranges  are  the  Alleghanies  and  the  Blue 
Mountains.  They  are  also  connected  with  the  Catskills  of  New  York,  and 
the  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont. 

(ii)  The  Western  or  Cordillera  System  consists  of  two  plateaus  and  a 
number  of  mountain  ranges.  The  two  plateaus  are  the  Mexican  Plateau ; 


NORTH     AMERICA  291 

and  the  Western  Plateau.  The  Mexican  Plateau  has  the  Sierra  Madre  as 
its  western  buttress.  The  Western  Plateau  has  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
which  are  the  backbone  of  North  America,  as  its  eastern  buttress  ;  while,  on 
its  western  edges,  it  has  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Cascade  Mountains. 
West  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  range  and  parallel  to  it  runs  the  Coast  Range ; 
and  the  two  support  between  them  a  river-valley.  The  most  famous  part  of 
the  Western  Plateau  is  the  Great  Basin— an  elevated  plateau  which  lies  be- 
tween the  Wahsatch  Mountains  on  the  east,  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  and 
Cascade  Range  on  the  west.  This  Great  Basin  is  a  continental  basin  and 
contains  rivers  and  lakes  whose  waters  never  reach  the  sea.  The  largest 
lake  is  the  Great  Salt  Lake.— The  vast  table-land  which  is  called  the  West- 
ern System  covers  one-third  of  the  area  of  the  United  States. 

(iii)  The  highest  mountain  in  North  America  is  Mount  St.  Elias  (19,500  ft.) 
in  Alaska.  It  stands  in  a  continuation  of  the  Cascade  Range.— The  highest 
summits  in  the  "  Rockies  "  are  Mount  Brown  (16,000  ft.)  and  Mount  Hooker 
(15,700  ft.)— The  highest  peak  in  the  Alleghanies  is  Mount  Mitchell,  which  is 
only  6088  ft.  high.— In  Mexico,  at  the  south  end  of  the  Mexican  Plateau, 
Popocatepetl  (the  highest  mountain  in  Central  America)  rises  to  the  height 
of  17,884  ft. ;  and  Orizaba  is  only  a  little  lower. 

(iv)  The  volcanoes  of  North  America  are  found  at  the  two  extremities  of 
the  system— in  Central  America  and  Alaska. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  in  the  build  of  North 
America  is  the  Great  Central  Plain,  which 
stretches  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  lies  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
the  Appalachian  System.     One  half  of  this  plain  slopes 
to  Hudson  Bay  and  the  Arctic  Ocean ;  the  other  half 
to  the  Gulf  of   Mexico  ;  and  the   watershed  between 
them  is  called  the  Height  of  Land. 

(i)  The  Great  Central  Plain  merges  gradually  into  the  sloping  table-land 
which  lies  to  the  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

(ii)  The  general  name  for  the  vast  grassy  plains  of  North  America,  is 
prairie.  Most  prairies  are  treeless  ;  but  there  are  timbered  as  well  as  "  bald  " 
prairies.  The  surface  is  not  perfectly  level,  but  in  general  consists  of  a  suc- 
cession of  low  wave-like  swells.  These  are  called  "  rolling  country  ".  The 
terraces  which  rise  gradually  from  the  banks  of  rivers  are  called  "  benches  ". 
In  the  south,  grassy  plains  are  called  "Savannahs";  and  along  the  lower 
Mississippi  are  found  "prairies  tremblantes ",  or  quaking  plains.  The 
prairies  are  covered  with  high  waving  grasses,  interspersed  with  scattered 
belts  of  timber.  These  prairies  fill  the  larger  part  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

As  North  America  possesses  immense  plains,  it  is  also 


292  GEOGRAPHY 

provided  with  a  magnificent  system  of  rivers. 

Rivers.  * 

The  mam  axis  of  the  continent,  being  near- 
est the  Pacific,  sends  the  longest  streams  into  the  At- 
lantic and  the  Arctic  Oceans.  The  position  of  the  two 
great  systems  of  uplift — the  Cordillera  and  the  Ap- 
palachian, with  the  Great  Plain  between  them,  throws 
much  the  larger  part  of  the  flowing  waters  into  this 
plain  ;  and  the  Height  of  Land  sends  them  down  the 
north  slope  and  the  south  slope  respectively. — The  four 
largest  rivers  of  North  America  are  the  Mississippi,  the 
Mackenzie,  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Saskatchewan  ; 
and  all  four  belong  to  the  Great  Central  Plain.  The 
Mississippi  flows  south,  the  Mackenzie,  north,  and  the 
St.  Lawrence,  east.  The  two  largest  rivers  into  the 
Pacific  are  the  Yukon  and  the  Columbia. 

(i)  (a)  In  addition  to  the  Mississippi,  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  (=Great 
River  of  the  North)  flows  into  the  Gulf.  (&)  The  largest  rivers  falling  into 
the  Hudson  Bay  are  the  Saskatchewan  or  Nelson,  and  the  Churchill,  (c)  A 
large  number  of  streams  flow  down  the  short  Atlantic  slope.  The  best 
known  are  the  Connecticut,  Hudson,  Susquehanna,  Potomac,  and  James, 
(c?)  The  Fraser,  Sacramento,  and  Colorado,  also  flow  into  the  Pacific,  (e)  In 
addition  to  the  Mackenzie,  the  Coppermine  and  the  Back  or  Great  Fish 
River,  flow  into  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

(ii)  The  Mississippi  or  "  Father  of  Waters"  has  a  basin  which  consists 
mainly  of  three  long  slopes :  one  from  the  Rockies  eastward  ;  one  from  the 
Appalachians  westward ;  and  one  from  the  Height  of  Land  southward. 
Down  these  three  slopes  roll  its  three  largest  tributaries  :— the  Missouri,  the 
longest  •  the  Ohio,  the  largest ;  and  the  Upper  Mississippi.  The  Missouri- 
Mississippi  is,  measuring  from  the  source  of  the  Missouri,  the  longest  river 
in  the  world.  It  is  4200  miles  long  ;  and,  with  its  tributaries,  provides  35,000 
miles  of  navigable  water-ways.  The  Mississippi  itself  rises  in  the  small  lake 
of  Itasca,  in  the  State  of  Minnesota.  Its  upper  course  ends  at  the  Falls  of 
St.  Anthony.  In  its  middle  course,  it  receives,  from  the  west,  the  Missouri, 
Arkansas,  and  Red  Rivers  ;  from  the  east,  the  Ohio.  The  Missouri  is  itself 
2900  miles  long ;  and  the  others  are  nearly  as  large  as  the  Danube.  The 
Missouri  brings  down  a  vast  quantity  of  yellow  mud  ;  and,  after  it  joins  the 
Mississippi,  the  river  becomes  a  dense  yellow  torrent.  The  Missouri  itself 
receives  mighty  tributaries,  the  largest  of  which  are  the  Yellowstone  and 
the  Platte. 


KOETH     AMERICA  293 

44  This  great  river-system  penetrates  to  the  very  heart  of  the  conti- 
nent; and,  with  its  numerous  tributaries,  affords  an  inland 
navigation  of  unsurpassed  magnificence.  "—FOSTER. 

(iii)  The  St.  Lawrence  is  the  overflow  of  the  Five  Great  Lakes.  It  is  2000 
miles  long  ;  and  the  area  of  its  catchment-basin  is  480,000  square  miles— or 
twice  the  size  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Though  the  third  in  length,  it  is  the  largest 
in  volume.  In  the  first  part  of  its  course  it  is  called  the  St.  Louis,  and  flows 
into  Lake  Superior.  It  receives  all  the  rivers  which  flow  from  the  long 
ranges  of  mountains  and  highlands,  which  separate  the  slopes  to  Hudson 
Bay  from  those  to  the  south.  Its  largest  tributary  is  the  Ottawa ;  its  grand- 
est, the  Saguenay.  It  receives  also  a  large  number  of  affluents  from  the 
south.  It  has  a  large  number  of  different  names  :  (a)  above  Lake  Superior, 
it  is  called  St.  Louis ;  (6)  between  Superior  and  Lake  Huron,  the  Narrows, 
or  "  Sault  Ste.  Marie  ";  (c)  between  Huron  and  Lake  St.  Clair,  the  St.  Clair ; 
(d)  between  St.  Clair  and  Lake  Erie,  the  Detroit ;  (e)  between  Erie  and  On- 
tario, the  Niagara  ;  and  (/)  between  Ontario  and  the  Ocean,  the  St.  Law- 
rence. 

On  the  river  Niagara  are  the  "  Falls  of  Niagara,"  the  largest  in  the 
world.  The  Horse-Shoe,  or  Canadian  Fall,  is  1900  ft.  wide  and 
120  ft.  high.  The  American  Fall  is  only  one-third  of  the  Cana- 
dian Fall  in  width,  but  is  a  little  higher. 

(iv)  The  Mackenzie  is  2500  miles  in  length.  It  is  fed  by  mighty  streams, 
both  from  the  east  and  from  the  west.  The  largest  is  the  Athabasca. 

(v)  The  Saskatchewan  or  Nelson  is  1900  miles  long,  and  has  a  catchment- 
basin  nearly  as  large  as  that  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  It  rises  near  Mount 
Hooker,  and  flows  through  a  country  called  the  tl  Fertile  Belt  ". 

If  North  America  is  remarkable  for  its  splendid  and 
highly-developed  river-systems,  it  is  still 
more  remarkable  for  its%  lakes.  It  has  the 
largest  number  of  the  largest  lakes  of  any  continent  on 
the  face  of  the  globe.  It  may  be  called  the  Lake  Con- 
tinent. These  lakes  lie  in  the  form  of  an  immense 
semicircle,  parallel  and  almost  concentric  with  Hudson 
Bay.  They  lie  in  three  great  depressed  basins,  and  be- 
long to  three  river-systems — the  Mackenzie,  the  Sas- 
katchewan, and  the  St.  Lawrence.  They  may  be 
counted  by  hundreds  ;  but  the  most  important  are  :  the 
Great  Bear  Lake ;  Great  Slave  Lake ;  Athabasca ; 
Winnipeg  ;  Superior  ;  Michigan  ;  Huron  ;  Erie  ;  and 
Ontario.  The  five  last  are  called  the  Five  Great  Lakes, 


294  GEOGRAPHY 

and  form  part  of  the  St.  Lawrence  Basin.     The  Great 
Salt  Lake  belongs  to  the  Continental  Basin. 

(i)  The  St.  Lawrence,  with  its  lakes  and  rivers,  contains  more  than  one- 
half  of  all  the  fresh  water  on  the  globe. 

(ii)  Lake  Superior  has  an  area  of  nearly  32,000  square  miles,  and  is  there- 
fore about  the  size  of  Ireland.  It  is  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water  in  the 
world ;  and,  in  some  parts,  it  is  about  600  ft.  deep.  Its  greatest  length, 
measured  on  its  own  curve,  is  420  miles.  Its  water  is  remarkably  transpar- 
ent, and  comes  from  more  than  200  rivers.  Its  shores  abound  in  silver, 
copper,  and  iron. 

(iii)  The  Five  Great  Lakes  have  together  an  area  of  over  90,000  square 
miles— or  more  than  the  area  of  Great  Britain. 

(iv)  Of  the  Five  Great  Lakes,  the  only  one  which  lies  wholly  within  the 
United  States  is  Michigan ;  the  others  lie  between  the  United  States  and 
Canada. 

North  America  stretches  from  80°  to  about  10°  North 
lat. ;  and  hence  it  possesses  every  gradation 

Climate.  ,    v  .  *.  ,  J   \ 

of  climate  from  arctic, — through  sub-arctic, 
temperate,  sub-tropical, — to  tropical.  There  are  cer- 
tain established  facts  relating  to  the  North  American 
climate  : 

(i)  Latitude  for  latitude,  it  Is  colder  than  the  climate  of  Europe,  (a) 
Labrador  is  in  the  latitude  of  Great  Britain.  But  Labrador  is  colder  than 
Siberia.  (6)  Quebec  is  in  the  latitude  of  Paris  ;  but  it  has  a  very  much  colder 
and  longer  winter,  (c)  Washington  is  in  the  latitude  of  Sicily  ;  but  at  Wash- 
ington the  Potomac  is  sometimes  frozen  oyer. 

(ii)  In  most  parts  of  North  America,  the  climate  is  more  continental  than 
in  the  corresponding  latitudes  of  Europe.  This  is  mainly  due  to  the  absence 
of  inland  seas  ;  and  also  to  the  fact  that  the  south-west  winds  from  the 
Pacific  are  kept  off  by  the  mountain  ranges  from  the  eastern  plains,  which 
are  extremely  cold  in  winter  and  intensely  hot  in  summer. 

(iii)  The  changes  of  temperature  are  very  abrupt.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  there  is  no  range  of  mountains  between  the  northern  and  the  southern 
slope ;  and  the  Great  Central  Plain  extends  without  a  break  from  the  Arctic 
Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  "  Height  of  Land  "  is  very  low ;  and 
hence  an  icy  wind  from  the  north  may  suddenly  spring  up  ;  and  the  ther- 
mometer has  been  known  to  fall  40°  in  less  than  an  hour.  Under  such  a 
wind,  ice  has  been  known  to  form  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  9° 
of  frost  have  been  found  in  the  south  of  Texas. 

(iv)  In  the  Temperate  Zone,  th.e  west  coast  is  warmer  and  moister  than 
the  east.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  warm  rain-laden  south-west  winds 
from  the  Pacific  blow  on  the  west  coast.  But,  in  the  east,  a  west  wind  is  a 


NORTH     AMERICA  295 

dry  wind  ;  and  the  east  wind  is  cold  as  well  as  moist.    "  In  California,  it  is 
never  too  hot  nor  too  cold  to  work." 

(v)  The  rain-fall  is  greatest  in  the  south,  decreases  as  we  go  north ;  and 
also  decreases  from  west  to  east.  The  driest  parts  are  the  Western  Plateau, 
especially  the  Utah  Basin,  which  is  drying  up.  The  elevated  plains  east  of 
the  Rockies  are  always  dry. 

The  flora  of  North  America  is  very  rich  and  enor- 
mously varied.  In  the  Arctic  Regions  we 
find,  as  usual,  mosses,  lichens,  and  stunted 
trees ;  in  the  tropical  districts  of  Central  America, 
palms  and  bamboos  ;  and  in  the  Temperate  regions  be- 
tween them  a  greater  variety  of  forest-trees  than  is  to 
be  found  in  the  forest-regions  of  Europe  or  Asia. — Of 
cultivated  plants,  the  North  grows  barley,  oats,  and  ex- 
cellent spring-wheat ;  maize  grows  in  the  warmer  parts 
of  Canada  and  in  nearly  all  the  southern  parts  of  the 
continent ;  the  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  aud  cotton,  are 
cultivated  in  the  southern  districts  of  the  United 
States.  Rice  is  grown  very  far  south  ;  and  sub-tropical 
fruits  (the  orange,  fig,  and  lemon)  flourish  in  the  warm 
southern  regions,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

(i)  The  forests  of  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  are  "  mixed 
forests  ".  The  forest  regions  occur  chiefly  on  the  western  and  the  eastern 
coasts.  On  the  east  it  extends  from  west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  to 
Massachusetts,  and  is  of  various  breadths.  Most  of  the  trees  are  deciduous. 

(ii)  In  Canada,  pines,  oaks,  maples,  and  poplars,  are  the  commonest  trees. 

(iii)  In  Mexico  the  most  striking  plants  are  the  cactuses,  some  of  which 
are  nearly  60  ft.  high,  and  with  their  stiff  forms  and  odd  arms  look  like 
gigantic  candelabra  scattered  over  what  looks  like  a  barren  country. 
Azaleas  and  magnolias  come  to  us  from  tropical  America. 

(iv)  Maize,  or  Indian  corn,  is  the  only  cultivated  cereal  that  is  indigenous 
to  North  America  ;  and  it  is  to  the  presence  of  this  plant  that  the  coloniza- 
tion of  the  continent  is  chiefly  due. 

(v)  The  manioc  (from  which  cassava  and  tapioca  are  made)  and  arrow- 
root are  among  the  native  food-plants  of  Tropical  America.  Both  are  tubers. 

The  fauna  of  North  America  is  rich  and  varied.  But, 
while  North  America  is  as  rich  as  the  Old 
World   in  birds,   insects,   and   plants,    it  is 


296  GEOGRAPHY 

much  poorer  in  mammals.  In  the  North  we  find  the 
bison  (which  is  rapidly  becoming  extinct),  the  cariboo 
(corresponding  to  the  reindeer  of  Europe),  the  moose- 
deer  (—elk),  five  kinds  of  bear,  seals,  beavers,  racoons, 
and  many  other  fur-clothed  animals.  There  is  only 
one  marsupial — the  opossum.  Monkeys  are  found  only 
within  the  tropics.  The  continent  is  rich  in  birds. 
The  humming-bird  is  peculiar  to  America ;  and  there 
are  also  many  species  noted  either  for  their  song  or  for 
their  plumage.  The  rattlesnake  is  the  most  dangerous 
reptile. 

(i)  (a)  Among  cetacea,  we  find  the  Greenland  whale.  (&)  Among  rumi- 
nants, there  are  four  large  deer ;  the  Rocky  Mountain  sheep  called  the 
"big-horn";  the  musk-ox;  and  two  antelopes,  (c)  Among  rodents,  there 
are  beavers,  hares,  squirrels,  and  the  prairie-dog,  which  is  allied  to  the  mar- 
mot and  squirrel.  Prairie-dogs  live  in  villages,  (it)  Of  Carnivora,  there 
are  foxes,  wolves,  jaguars,  pumas,  sables,  and  skunks  (of  the  weasel  kind), 
otters  and  gluttons,  bears  (the  grisly  bear  of  the  Rockies),  and  racoons. 

(ii)  Of  the  cat  tribe,  the  puma  is  the  most  widely  diffused. 

(iii)  The  common  turkey  is  native  to  America. 

North  America  is  unequalled  by  any  continent  in  the 

richness  and  variety  of  its  mineral  products. 

The   largest   stock   of   coal   known    in    the 

world   is   in   the   United    States ;    iron   is   enormously 

abundant;  while  the  so-called  precious  metals — gold, 

and  silver,   are  mined  in  very  large  quantities.     The 

purest  copper  is  found  in  great  abundance  on  the  north 

and  east  shores  of  Lake  Superior.     Lead  and  quicksilver 

are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  continent ;  both  Canada 

and  Mexico  produce  tin. 

The  area  of  all  the  coal-fields  of  the  United  States  is 
estimated  at  190,000  square  miles — or  twenty  times  as 
large  as  all  the  coal-fields  of  Europe.  The  Appalachian 
coal-field,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Alleghanies,  has  an  area 


NOBTH     AMERICA  297 

of  70,000  square  miles — or  more  than  twice  the  size  of 
Ireland.  The  Missouri  Basin  or  "  Great  Western  coal- 
field," the  largest  in  the  United  States,  covers  nearly 
85,000  square  miles. — There  is  also  a  great  deal  of  coal 
in  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

There   are   at   present  in   North   America   probably 
about  80, 000, 000  inhabitants.  Of  these1  about 
60   millions  are   whites — and   of  European 
blood ;   the  rest  are  Negroes,   American-Indians,    and 
half-castes. 

(i)  The  white  population  usually  speak  English  ;  in  Lower  Canada  the 
language  is  usually  French,  and  in  Mexico  and  Central  America  it  is  Spanish. 

(ii)  The  Red  Indians  (or  Americans)  are  rapidly  decreasing,  and  are  said 
not  to  number  half-a-million.  Within  the  vast  territory  of  the  United  States 
there  are  somewhat  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  million.  (When  America  was 
first  discovered,  Columbus  believed  that  he  had  reached  the  eastern  shores 
of  India ;  and  hence  these  copper-coloured  races  were  called  Indians.) 

(iii)  The  Eskimoes  in  Greenland  and  the  north  are  akin  to  the  Lapps  of 
Europe. 

North  America  was  discovered  by  Christopher  Colon 
("Columbus")  in  the  year  1492;  but  the 
mainland  he  saw  only  in  1498. — The  Span- 
iards were  the  first  people  to  think  of  conquering  the 
country  ;  and  they  seized  Mexico  and  some  of  the  West 
India  Islands. — The  French  appeared  in  1534  ;  and  be- 
gan to  build  forts  and  plant  colonies. — Next  came  the 
English,  who  gradually  expelled  the  French,  and  who 
declared  themselves  independent  of  the  British  Crown 
in  1776.  The  original  colonies  numbered  thirteen ; 
and  they  formed  a  federation  which  they  called  the 
United  States. — Mexico  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke  in 
1830. — The  whole  continent  is  now  divided  chiefly  be- 
tween English-andSpanish-speaking  peoples. 

(i)  Cortez  conquered  the  Mexican  Empire  in  1521  with  950  Spaniards. 


298  GEOGRAPHY 

(ii)  The  first  permanent  settlement  of  the  English  was  made  in  1607  in 
Virginia. 

(iii)  The  English  drove  out  the  French  in  the  war  of  1756-60 ;  and  Wolfe 
took  Quebec— which  was  the  strongest  fortress  of  the  French— in  1759. 
With  the  fall  of  Quebec,  all  Canada  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English. 

(iv)  The  Negro  slaves  in  the  United  States  were  set  free  in  1862,  during 
the  great  American  Civil  War,  by  a  proclamation  of  President  Lincoln. 

The  political  divisions  of  North  America  are  :  Danish 
America ;     British    North     America ;     the 
United  States ;  Mexico  ;  the  Central  Amer- 
ican Eepublics ;  British  Honduras ;   the  West  Indian 
Eepublics ;  the  Spanish  West  Indies  ;  the  British  West 
Indies  ;  the  Dutch  West  Indies ;  and  the  French  West 
Indies. 

(i)  Danish  America  includes  Greenland  and  three  small  islands  in  the 
West  Indies. 

(ii)  The  United  States  include  the  detached  territory  of  Alaska. 

(iii)  The  West  Indian  Republics  consist  of  one  island,  the  western  part  of 
which  is  Hayti ;  the  eastern  San  Domingo. 

The  teacher  may  continue  the  subject  by  treating  the 
following  topics  : 

Natural  Advantages 

1.  (At  the  home  of  the  pupil, — local  geography.) 

2.  On  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

a.  Nature  of  the  soil  with  reference  to  agriculture. 

b.  Forests, — nature  and  uses  of  the  woods. 

c.  Facilities  for  transportation  afforded  by  the  sea,  rivers, 

lakes  etc. 

3.  Within  the  earth. 

a.  Useful  minerals  and  metals — as  coal,  building  material, 

iron,  copper,  lead,  etc. 

b.  Precious  metals, — as  gold  and  silver 

4.  In  the  waters. 

a.  Sea  fisheries. 

b.  Lake  and  river  fisheries. 

Industries)  or  Occupations 
1.  Agriculture. 

a.  Relative  importance  among  the  industries  of  the  State. 


BLACKBOAKD  TABULATIONS          299 

b.  The  crops  raised. 

c.  Statistics  of  crops. 

d.  Cattle,  sheep  and  hog  raising. 

2.  Manufacturing. 

a.  Relative  importance. 

b.  Articles  produced. 

c.  Statistics  of  manufactures. 

3.  Mining. 

a.  Metals  or  minerals  found. 

b.  Mines,  to  what  extent  worked. 

4.  Lumbering. 

a.  Locality  of  the  forests. 

b.  Description  of  the  method. 

5.  The  Fisheries. 

a.  Locality  of  the  fisheries. 

b.  Kinds  of  fish  taken. 

6.  Commerce. 

a.  What  is  exported. 
£>,  What  is  imported. 

c.  Means  of  transportation. 

Internal  Improvements 

1.  Railroads. 

a.  Local  railroads. 

b.  Trunk-lines. 

2.  Canals. 

3.  Navigation  on  lakes  and  rivers. 

After  this  subject  lias  been  taught  objectively  and 
fully  illustrated,  it  should  be  tabulated  on  the  board 
and  the  pupils  be  required  to  recite  topically. 

They  should  name  every  important  item  connected 
with  the  relief,  and  the  teacher  should  require  compo- 
sitions in  which  the  tabulation  is  used  as  an  outline. 

It  is  expected  that  after  the  subject  is  taught  objec- 
tively all  the  divisions  will  be  tabulated  in  a  similar 
manner. 


Those  who  desire  specimens  of  the  treatment  of  local  geography, 
can  obtain  for  25  cents  each  Bardeen's  "  Geography  of  Onondaga 


300  GEOGRAPHY 

County",  or  Northam's  "Geography  of  Lewis  County"  and  "of 
Oneida  County",  all  of  New  York,  costing  25  cents  each.  Bar- 
deen's  "  Geography  of  the  Empire  State  ",  75  cents,  is  an  octavo 
volume  of  126  pages,  with  25  outline  maps  on  uniform  scale,  5 
relief  maps,  and  125  illustrations,  giving  help  for  local  geography 
as  yet  unequalled  in  completeness. 

The  "Oswego  Normal  System  of  Geography",  50  cents,  by 
Amos  W.  Farnham,  teacher  of  geography  in  that  famous  institu- 
tion, was  published  in  1896,  and  gives  the  methods  now  employed 
there,  embodying  of  course  all  that  has  proved  permanently  val- 
uable of  recent  devices.  Griffin's  "  Topical  Geography  ",  50  cts., 
is  also  excellent. 

The  use  of  relief  maps  is  recommended  wherever  they  can  be 
obtained.  The  publisher  of  this  volume  can  furnish  maps  of 
Switzerland,  particularly  adapted  for  showing  contour,  at  $3. 50 
for  the  size  11  x  17|  inches,  and  $10.00  for  the  size  23  x  34  inches. 
Also  map  of  Palestine,  22x35,  $10.00,  particularly  useful  in 
Sunday  schools,  but  also  adapted  to  day  schools  on  account  of 
the  physical  configuration. 

Much  use  is  now  made  of  card -board  helps,  such  as  "Geograph- 
ical Cards",  $1.00;  "Geographical  Game,  Our  Country",  50  cts. 

These  cards  are  intended  to  accompany  any  text-book  in  Geog- 
raphy. The  topics  and  questions  emphasize  a  necessity  for 
thorough  knowledge  of  commercial  relations,  exports,  imports, 
routes  of  travel,  expense  of  transportation ;  in  fact,  the  cards 
deal  with  the  Essentials  of  Geography,  omitting  that  which  is  of 
little  or  no  importance.  A  set  of  these  Cards  will  save  the 
teacher  many  needless  hours  of  study  and  research,  by  preserv- 
ing classified  memoranda  in  compact  form. 

Griffith's  "Outline  Blackboard  Maps"  serve  a  useful  purpose. 
They  include  the  five  Continents,  the  United  States,  the  State, 
and  a  blank  for  the  County,  and  cost  $8.00  a  set.  The  outline  is 
permanent,  while  tlie  pupil  is  to  locate  before  the  class  whatever 
are  the  main  features  of  the  day's  lesson. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  special  province  of  Physical  Geography  is  the 
investigation  of  Climate  and  its  modifications. . 

The  great  agents  are  the  air,  rain,  frosts,  springs, 
brooks,  rivers,  glaciers,  icebergs,  mountains,  and  the 
sea. 

It  is  Climate,  and  Climate  alone,  that  determines 
mainly  the  character  of  all  vegetable  and  animal  life. 

Climatic  agents  not  only  are  now  the  most  important 
and  influential,  but  they  have  been  so  during  all  past 
geological  ages.  To  account  for  all  of  the  extraordinary  * 
changes  of  Climate  would  require  many  volumes,  but  I 
have  studiously  avoided  introducing  theories  of  a  hy- 
pothetical nature. 

The  conclusions  are  in  every  case  derived  either  from 
facts  or  from  recognized  principles. 

The  student  should  never  rest  until  he  gets  at  the 
reasons  for  what  he  sees  about  him.  He  should  know 
something  about  the  air  he  breathes,  and  the  earth  he 
lives  upon,  and  about  the  relations  between  them.  It 
is  the  great  book  of  Nature,  wherein  each  of  us,  young 
and  old,  may  read,  and  go  on  reading  all  through  life, 
without  exhausting  even  a  small  part  of  what  it  has  to 
teach  us.  It  is  that  great  look — Air,  Earth,  and  Sea — 
which  I  would  have  you  study. 

I.     ELEMENTS  OF  CLIMATE 

By  climate  we  mean  the  temperature,  the  moisture 
of  the  air,  the  prevailing  winds,  and  their  results. 

(301) 


302 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Temperature. 


Heat  comes  from  the  rays  of  the  sun,  which  give  the 
most  heat  when  they  fall  the  most  directly  upon  any 
part  of  the  earth,  and  the  least  when  they  fall  the  most 
obliquely. 

When  we  speak  of  the  heat  or  the  cold  of  the  air,  we 
use  the  word  Temperature.  When  the  air 
is  hot,  the  temperature  is  said  to  be  high. 
When  the  air  is  cold,  the  temperature  is  said  to  be  low. 

The  temperature  is  warmer  at  noon  than  in  the 
morning  or  evening  because  at  morning  and  at  evening 
the  rays  of  the  sun  fall  in  a  slanting  direction,  and  we 
receive  comparatively  few  of  the  rays,  because  they  are 
spread  over  a  great  surface. 

At  noon  when  the  sun  is  more  or  less  directly  upon 
us,  then  we  receive  more  of  them  because  they  fall  upon 
a  comparatively  small  space,  as  will  be  seen  from  the 
following  figure : 


Rays  falling  directly  from  overhead  are  said  to  be 
vertical ;  those  falling  in  a  slanting  direction  are  said 
to  be  oblique. 


OBLIQUE   RAYS   OF   THE   SU^  303 

This  diagram  put  on  the  black-board  will  bring  the 
matter  home  to  the  pupil's  comprehension.  oblique 
The  vertical  sheaf  of  rays,  striking  the  earth  rays' 
at  noon,  falls  upon  a  small  surface.  In  the  middle  of 
the  forenoon  or  afternoon,  the  rays,  falling  obliquely, 
are  spread  over  a  greater  surface.  At  sunrise  or  sunset 
no  part  of  the  sheaf  touches  the  earth's  surface  except 
its  lower  side,  and  most  of  the  rays  are  lost  in  the  at- 
mosphere beyond.  Tell  the  pupils  that  the  sun  always 
shines  vertically,  or  nearly  so,  on  the  equator,  and  on  a 
considerable  belt  beyond  the  equator,  on  either  side. 
Now,  just  as  the  sunbeams  fall  more  directly  at  noon 
than  in  the  morning  or  evening,  so  they  fall  more 
directly  during  the  summer  season  than  during  the 
winter  season. 

In  our  country  the  sun  centre  is  never  directly  over- 
head, and  its  rays  fall  upon  us  in  the  most  nearly  verti- 
cal direction  on  the  longest  summer  day. 

First  Important  Fact. — Temperature — that  is,  the 
heat  or  cold  of  a  place — is  one  element  of  climate. 

In  some  countries  immense  quantities  of  rain  fall ;  in 

others  none,  or  next  to  none.     In  the  rain- 
Humidity, 
less  districts  the  climate  is  dry  ;  where  much 

rain  falls  the  climate  is  wet  or  damp. 

When  we  speak  of  a  wet  or  a  dry  climate,  we  use  the 
word  humidity,  or  moisture. 

Second  Important  Fact. — Humidity  is  another  ele- 
ment of  climate. 

TJiird  Important  Fact.»-~ The  prevailing  prevaiiing 
winds  form  an  element  of  climate.  winds. 

The  three  elements  of  climate  then  are  Temperature, 
Humidity,  and  Prevailing  Winds. 


304  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY 

A  climate  thafc  is  neither  too  hot  nor  too  cold  is  called 
temperate.  When  it  is  very  hot  or  very  cold  it  is  said 
to  be  extreme. 

A  climate  that  is  in  every  way  fine  and  agreeable  is 
called  genial  or  salubrious. 

Three  elements  are  included  in  climate  : 

Review. 

1.    Temperature — that  is,  the  heat  or  cold. 

2.  Humidity,  or  the  state  of  being  wet  or  dry. 

3.  The  prevailing  winds. 

(a).  A  temperate  climate  means  one  that  is  neither 
too  hot  nor  too  cold. 

(b).  An  extreme  climate  means  one  that  is  very  hot 
or  very  cold. 

(c)  A  genial  or  salubrious  climate  means  one  thafc  is 
in  every  way  fine  and  agreeable,  favorable  to  health. 

These  facts  should  be  written  on  the  board,  and  the 
pupils  should  be  required  to  copy  and  commit  them  to 
memory. 

II.     THE  GENERAL  LAW 

How  can  we  tell  what  variety  of  climate  any  country 
has  ?  What  must  we  know  before  we  can  tell  ? 

NOTE. — Before  this  division  of  the  subject  is  taken  up,  a  les- 
son should  be  given  on  the  shape  or  form  of  the  earth,  lines  upon 
the  earth's  surface,  etc. 

We  have  learned  that  the  earth  in  its  motion,  like  a 
Latitude  wheel,  revolves  around  an  imaginary  line 
called  its  axis. 

The  most  northern  point  of  the  earth's  surface  is 
called  the  North  Pole,  and  the  most  southern  point  the 
South  Pole. 


THE   GENEKAL   LAW  305 

There  is  an  imaginary  line  called  the  Equator,  drawn 
at  an  equal  distance  from  each  pole,  and  dividing  the 
earth-surface  into  eqi^l  parts. 

The  countries  where  the  sun  shines  directly  over- 
head, or  perpendicularly,  are  those  that  are  near  this  line 
— the  equator — (use  a  globe  if  you  have  one,  or  at 
least  a  map  ;  place  a  diagram  on  the  board  ;  illustrate 
fully). 

Here,  23^-°  north  of  the  equator,  is  another  line, 
called  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  and  23^°  south  of  the 
equator  is  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 

Any  country  lying  anywhere  between  the  tropics  is 
called  intertropical.  And  since  these  countries  have 
the  sun  directly  overhead  at  certain  seasons,  and  nearly 
so  at  all  other  seasons,  they  will  have  a  hot  climate. 
Then  as  we  go  nearer  to  the  poles  it  becomes  colder,  till 
at  last,  at  the  polar  regions,  we  find  only  ice  and  snow. 
We  learn  from  these  facts  that  the  heat  throughout  the 
year  is  greatest  at  or  near  the  equator,  and  diminishes 
gradually  toward  the  poles.  Thus  we  see  that  the 
climate  of  a  place  depends  upon  the  latitude  of  the 
place.  The  latitude  of  a  place  is,  therefore,  of  the  first 
importance  in  determining  its  temperature,  since  a 
decrease  of  heat  takes  place  with  an  increase  of  latitude 
as  we  travel,  at  the  same  level  above  the  sea,  from  the 
equator  towards  the  poles. 

So  it  will  be  seen  that  latitude  is  the  fundamental 
element  in  climate,  and  influences  all  the  others. 

At  the  equator,  and  within  the  tropics,  the  greatest 
heat  is  experienced,  because  the  sun  is  always  vertical 
to  some  place  within  those  limits,  and  the  solar  action 


306  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY 

is  more  intense  in  proportion  as  the  rays  are  vertical  to 
the  earth.     See  figure,  page  302. 

As  we  recede  from  the  equator  the  rays  fall  more 
obliquely ;  and,  because  fewer  of  them  are  spread  over 
a  larger  space,  they  are  less  powerful,  and  consequently 
have  less  influence  on  temperature. 

It  has  been  calculated  that  out  of  10,000  rays  falling 
upon  the  earth  atmosphere,  8,123  arrive  at  a  given  point 
if  they  fall  vertically  ;  7,024  if  the  angle  of  direction  is 
50°;  2,821,  if  it  is  7°;  and  only  5  if  the  direction  is 
horizontal. 

As  will  be  seen,  the  amount  of  heat  produced  by  the 
sun  upon  the  earth's  surface  is  greatest  near  the  equator, 
and  diminishes  gradually  toward  the  poles,  and  these 
effects  are  referable  to  the  spherical  form  of  the 
earth,  and  the  angle  at  which  the  sun's  rays  impinge 
upon  the  surface. 

In  the  equatorial  regions  they  are  vertical  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  and  there  produce  maximum  effect ; 
but  on  account  of  the  curved  outline  of  the  globe,  they 
fall  more  and  more  obliquely  with  increasing  latitude, 
and  the  intensity  of  action  diminishes  proportionately. 
At  the  poles  they  are  tangent  to  the  surface,  and  their 
effect  is  zero. 

From  these  facts  we  may  deduce  the  following  : 

General  Law — The  climate  of  a  place  depends  prin- 
cipally on  its  latitude. 

MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  GENERAL  LAW 

When   we  ascend  mountains,   the  air  becomes  cool, 
cooler,  cold,  colder,  till  finally  we  find  our- 
selves  amid    snows   that  last  all  the  year 
around. 


MODIFICATIONS   OF  THE    GENERAL   LAW  307 

We  may  travel  several  hundred  miles  from  the 
equator  toward  the  poles,  along  the  level  surface  of  the 
earth,  before  we  become  sensible  of  a  diminished  tem- 
perature ;  but  when  we  ascend  the  mountains  between 
the  tropics,  as  we  begin  to  increase  our  elevation  a 
rapid  change  of  temperature  is  experienced,  and  those 
places  that  are  elevated  will  be  colder  than  those  at  the 
level  of  the  sea. 

On  an  average,  an  increase  of  300  feet  altitude  dimin- 
ishes the  temperature  1°  Fahr.;  hence,  the  rate  of 
diminution  is  about  3°  to  1000  feet. 

In  large  plateaus,  however,  the  effect  of  altitude  seems 
to  be,  in  some  measure,  intensified  by  the  great  extent 
of  absorbing  and  radiating  surface  uplifted  into  the 
atmosphere.  In  general  they  are  considerably  warmer 
than  the  isolated  summits  of  mountains  of  the  same 
altitude. 

From  this  effect  of  elevation  upon  temperature,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  mountain  regions  of  the  torrid  zone 
have  great  varieties  of  climate. 

In  this  region  we  may  find  vines  at  the  base  of  the 
mountain.  The  region  of  vines  rises  from  the  level  of 
the  sea  to  a  certain  height ;  in  this  zone  of  vegetation 
may  be  found  the  date-tree,  the  sugar-cane,  the  fig,  and 
the  olive  ;  next  come  the  hardy  species  of  trees,  as  the 
oak,  the  laurel ;  higher,  the  birch,  the  pine,  and  the 
firs ;  higher  still  may  be  found  the  grasses ;  and,  be- 
yond, a  few  plants  and  lichens  ;  and,  still  beyond,  the 
vegetation  ceases  entirely,  and  we  have  reached  the 
line  of  perpetual  snow. 

NOTE. — Illustrate  the  zones  of  vegetation  by  a  diagram  at  the 
board,  using  colored  chalk. 


308  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY 

From  these  facts  we  gather  that  the  temperature  of  a 
place  depends  not  on  its  latitude  alone,  but  on  its  eleva- 
tion, or,  as  it  is  called,  its  altitude. 

The  lower  and  denser  strata  of  the  atmosphere  absorb 
the  greatest  amount  of  the  sun's  heat,  and  are  necessarily 
the  warmest ;  the  atmosphere  is  not  much  heated  by  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun,  but  receives  heat  mainly  by 
radiation  from  the  earth's  surface. 

First  Modification — The  altitude  of  a  place  modifies 
the  climate. 

Mountains  also  modify  the  climate  of  large  areas  of 
lower  lands  in  their  vicinity.    Their  elevation 

Mountains.        .  «_".•*  ^  • 

intercepts  the  moist  currents  approaching 
from  the  oceans,  and  their  cold  summits  condense  the 
moisture,  causing  it  to  be  precipitated. 

Consequently,  the  winds,  on  leaving  the  mountains 
for  the  interior,  are  dry,  and  give  the  characteristics  of 
dryness  to  the  climate  of  the  interior  areas.  This  modi- 
fication is  well  illustrated  in  our  own  country  by  the 
climate  of  our  Western  Plains,  which  are  influenced  in 
their  climatic  conditions  by  the  high,  cold  wall  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

The  valleys  west  of  this  range  have  abundant  rain- 
fall, and,  consequently,  rich  fertility ;  while  those  to 
the  east  have  almost  perpetual  drouth,  and  consequent 
sterility. 

Therefore,  another  modification  of  climate  is  the 
proximity  of  mountain  ranges. 

Second  Modification — The  proximity  of  mountain 
ranges  modifies  the  climate, 


MOUKTAIKS   AKB   WI^DS  309 

Heat  causes  winds.  Winds  are  motions  of  parts  of 
the  atmosphere  ;  warmer  portions  expand. 

•  J       4.1.      '  1 

become  lighter,  rise,  and   their   places  are 
filled  by  cold  air. 

Hence,  tropical  heat  causes  an  ascending,  warm  cur- 
rent of  air  at  the  equator.  The  heavy  cold  air  from  the 
poles,  flowing  toward  the  equator,  causes  Trade  Winds 
on  each  side  of  the  equator. 

Ascending  air  cools,  contracts,  and  descends  to  the 
surface  beyond  the  tropics,  meets  the  polar  currents, 
and  forms  the  return  currents. 

The  motion  of  the  earth  causes  the  polar  and  return 
currents  to  be  turned  from  their  northern  or  southern 
direction,  and  they  take  a  northeastern  or  southwestern 
course. 

The  character  of  the  wind  depends  upon  the  region 
whence  it  comes.  Winds  from  the  equatorial  regions 
carry  into  the  middle  latitudes  some  portion  of  the  heat 
of  the  tropical  regions ;  while  polar  winds  bring  the 
low  temperature  of  the  latitudes  whence  they  come. 

If  there  is  nothing  to  break  the  force  of  the  icy  winds 
coming  from  the  Arctic  region,  we  may  expect  the 
country  to  be  cold  even  if  it  is  pretty  far  south  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  if  there  is  nothing  to  break  the  force  of  the 
hot  winds  coming  from  the  torrid  region,  we  may  expect 
the  country  to  be  warm,  even  if  it  is  pretty  far  north. 

In  the  United  States  the  winds  from  the  north  are 
usually  noted  for  their  coolness,  a  property  they  derive 
from  the  frozen  regions  of  Hudson  and  Baffin  Bay ; 
while  those  from  the  south,  coming  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  impart  a  mildness  throughout  the  whole 
country. 


310  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  comparatively  mild  climate  of  the  British  Isles 
is  owing  to  the  prevalence  of  main  currents  of  air  which 
are  warmed  by  sweeping  over  the  Gulf  Stream. 

In  the  same  latitude  the  shores  of  Greenland  and 
Labrador  are  washed  by  the  icy  waters  of  the  Arctic 
currents  and  swept  by  the  polar  winds. 

The  one  region  has  a  mild  climate,  and  is  occupied 
by  the  most  enlightened  nations  of  the  world  ;  the  other 
is  a  frozen  waste,  sparsely  inhabited  by  degraded  sav- 
ages and  European  traders. 

We  gather  from  these  facts  that  the  climate  of  a  place 
depends  not  alone  on  its  latitude,  altitude,  or  proxim- 
ity to  mountain  ranges,  but  on  the  character  of  the 
winds. 

Third  Modification — The  prevailing  winds  at  a  given 
place  modify  the  climate. 

Oceanic  climate  is  characterized  by  uniformity. 
Water  has  a  great  capacity  for  absorbing 
heat,  and  but  feeble  conducting  power ; 
hence,  the  ocean  grows  warm  slowly  under  the  rays  of 
the  sun,  and  never  attains  a  high  temperature.  It  also 
radiates  heat  slowly,  and  as  fast  as  the  surface  particles 
become  cool,  they  sink  and  are  replaced  by  warmer  ones 
from  beneath  ;  hence  the  cooling  process  is  as  gradual 
as  the  heating,  and  neither  produces  extremes  of  tem- 
perature. 

The  ocean  retains  the  heat  longer  than  the  land.  In 
the  summer  the  land  is  warmer  than  the  sea,  and  in  the 
winter  the  land  is  cooler  than  the  sea. 

NOTE. — This  is  a  general  statement,  and  does  not  refer  to  daily 
variation  of  temperature. 


THE   OCEAH  311 

The  air  from  the  ocean  moderates  the  heat  of  summer 
and  the  cold  of  winter.  So  the  coasts  have  a  more 
equable  temperature  than  the  interior. 

The  land  absorbs  the  solar  heat  rapidly,  and  the  sur- 
face soon  attains  a  high  temperature.  Especially  is  this 
the  case  when  the  soil  is  imperfectly  covered  with  vege- 
tation, as  in  treeless  plains  or  deserts. 

But,  when  the  sun  is  withdrawn,  heat  radiates  with 
rapidity,  and  a  comparatively  low  temperature  is  soon 
reached.  It  is  seen  that  the  ocean  preserves  a  much 
more  uniform  temperature  than  the  land,  hence  islands 
and  maritime  districts  have  milder  climates  than  inland 
regions  under  the  same  parallels  of  latitude.  London, 
though  situated  in  a  higher  latitude,  enjoys  a  milder 
climate  than  Paris.  The  winters  and  summers  of  Ire- 
land are  much  more  temperate  than  those  of  any  other 
country  in  the  same  latitude. 

Let  us  take  an  example  in  Nature,  and  see  what 
passes  on  an  island  alone  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean. 
Let  us  remember  that  the  land  is  heated  more  readily 
than  the  sea.  In  proportion  as  the  sun  rises  above  the 
horizon,  the  island  becomes  warmer  than  the  neighbor- 
ing sea. 

Their  respective  atmospheres  participate  in  these  un- 
equal temperatures  ;  the  fresh  air  of  the  sea  rushes  from 
all  directions  under  the  form  of  a  sea-breeze,  which 
makes  itself  felt  along  the  whole  coast,  and  the  warmer 
and  lighter  air  of  the  island  will  ascend  into  the  at- 
mosphere. 

During  the  night  it  is  the  reverse.  The  island  loses 
heat  by  radiation,  and  cools  quicker  than  the  sea. 


312  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Its  atmosphere,  having  become  heavier,  runs  into 
that  of  the  sea,  under  the  form  of  land-breeze,  and  this 
interchange  lasts  until  the  temperature,  and  conse- 
quently the  density  of  the  two  atmospheres,  has  again 
become  the  same. 

This  is  the  phenomenon  observed  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  Georgia,  Florida,  and  almost  daily  on  nearly  all  the 
seaboards. 

What  takes  place  here  on  a  small  scale  in  the  space 
of  a  day,  passes  on  a  great  scale  between  the  entire  con- 
tinent and  the  ocean  from  one  season  to  another.  A 
moment's  reflection  will  enable  us  to  see  that  these  dif- 
ferences of  temperature,  setting  the  whole  atmosphere 
in  motion,  modify  the  climate  of  a  place. 

So  it  is  seen  that  the  water  of  the  sea  keeps  an  island 
warm  in  winter  and  cool  in  summer. 

In  the  centre  of  the  continent  the  wind  in  winter 
blows  over  immense  fields  of  snow  or  ice,  and  keeps  the 
air  cold ;  and  in  the  summer  it  blows  across  the  heated 
land,  and  the  air  must  be  very  warm  ;  the  countries  in 
the  centre  of  a  continent  have  an  extreme  climate ;  hence 
the  nearness  to,  or  remoteness  of  a  place  from  the  ocean, 
modifies  the  climate. 

Fourth  Modification — The  proximity  of  a  place  to,  or 
its  distance  from,  the  ocean  modifies  its  climate. 

There  are  rivers  in  the  ocean  called  ocean-currents. 
ocean  cur-  They  consist  of  vast  oceanic  streams  which 
rents.  keep  Up  a  perpetual  circulation  of  the  waters. 

Some  of  them  have  been  traced  many  thousand  miles. 
All  the  rivers  in  the  world  are  insignificant  when  com- 
pared with  some  of  these  currents. 


OCEAH   CURRENTS  313 

They  move  on  steadily  through  the  water  compara- 
tively at  rest,  and  are  often  different  from  the  latter  in 
color  and  temperature.  Some  are  hundreds  of  miles 
broad,  thousands  of  feet  deep,  and  have  a  course  em- 
bracing a  larger  part  of  the  ocean  in  which  they 
move. 

Currents  exist  not  only  at  the  surface,  but  in  deep 
waters,  where  their  course  is  frequently  in  a  different 
direction  from,  sometimes  even  opposite  to,  that  of  the 
surface-currents. 

The  direction  and  velocity  of  currents  are  modified  : 
1.  By  the  revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  ;  2.  By  the 
constant  winds  of  the  Torrid  Zone  ;  3.  By  being  turned 
aside  by  the  shores. 

The  expansion  and  contraction  of  water  by  heat  and 
cold  are,  perhaps,  the  principal  causes  to  which  currents 
are  due.  Heat  causes  water  to  become  warm  ;  warm 
water  is  lighter  than  cold  ;  and  when  certain  portions 
become  heated,  they  rise  by  reason  of  their  buoyancy, 
and  are  replaced  by  surrounding  colder  and  heavier 
water  flowing  at  the  same  time  toward  the  equator. 
The  ocean  currents  assist  to  cool  the  tropical  and  to 
warm  the  polar  regions. 

Evaporation  by  solar  heat  causes  large  quantities  of 
water  to  pass  off  in  vapor  ;  and  it  is  this  excessive  evap- 
oration within  the  tropics  which  tends  to  lower  the 
level  of  the  water  there. 

The  revolution  of  the  earth  round  its  axis  is  still 
another  powerful  cause  in  producing  currents,  particu- 
larly those  of  the  equatorial  regions,  which  have  com- 
monly a  western  direction. 


314  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

The  winds  of  tropical  climates,  which  blow  continu- 
ously or  during  long  periods  in  one  direction,  also  lend 
their  influence  in  affecting  the  currents. 

The  effect  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  tides  in  producing 
an  alternate  flowing  of  currents  in  opposite  directions  is 
perceived  in  channels  between  islands,  or  between  islands 
and  the  mainland. 

Thus,  in  the  channel  which  connects  Long  Island 
Sound  with  the  harbor  of  New  York,  known  as  the  East 
Eiver,  strong  currents  alternately  prevail  in  opposite 
directions,  as  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows. 

The  Gulf  Stream,  which  first  becomes  apparent  near 
the  northeast  coast  of  Cuba,  has  a  great  influence  on 
climate.  The  Gulf  Stream,  as  it  issues  from  the  straits 
of  Florida,  is  of  dark  indigo-blue,  so  strongly  contrast- 
ing with  the  greenish  color  of  the  sea  that  the  line  of 
contact  is  distinctly  traceable  by  the  eye.  Near  its  ori- 
gin this  remarkable  current  has  a  breadth  of  32  miles 
and  a  depth  of  more  than  2,000  feet ;  off  Cape  Hatteras 
the  breadth  is  at  least  75  miles,  and  the  depth  more  than 
700  feet. 

The  temperature  at  its  origin  is  about  80°  Fahr. ;  on 
an  average  it  is  from  20°  to  38°  warmer  than  the  adja- 
cent water. 

The  comparatively  high  temperature  of  this  great 
stream  modifies  the  climate  of  the  eastern  coast  of  North 
America ;  and  as  it  sweeps  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
in  its  northeast  coast  to  the  British  Isles  and  Norway, 
it  modifies  the  climate  of  those  countries.  It  will  be 
seen,  by  a  study  of  the  ocean-currents,  that  the  polar 
currents  and  the  return  currents  bring  heat  to  the 
western  shores,  and  that  they  produce  contrasts  in  tern- 


RAIN-PALL  315 

perature  in  the  same  latitude  on  opposite  shores  of  con- 
tinents. We  gather  from  these  facts  that  the  ocean 
currents  modify  the  climate  of  a  country. 

Fifth  Modification. — Ocean  currents  modify  the  cli- 
mate of  a  place. 

The  annual  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  in  a  place  con- 
siderably affects  its  climate,  by  imparting  a 

J     !  •  •,.,-,  Rain-fall. 

greater  or  less  degree  of  humidity  or  damp- 
ness of  the  atmosphere.     In  general  more  rain  falls  on 
islands  and  on  sea  coasts  than  in  inland  districts  ;  among 
mountains  than  in  level  regions  ;  and  within  the  tropics 
than  in  the  other  zones. 

Heat  and  winds  produce  rains.  Heat  causes  evapora- 
tion ;  the  vapors  rise  in  the  air  ;  air  at  a  given  tempera- 
ture has  a  certain  capacity  for  moisture  ;  when  this  limit 
is  reached  the  air  is  said  to  be  saturated  with  humidity, 
and  the  least  lowering  of  the  temperature  causes  a  con- 
densation of  moisture  in  the  form  of  dew,  fog,  clouds,  or 
rain  ;  but,  if  the  temperature  is  raised,  the  capacity  for 
vapor  being  increased,  absorption  recommences. 

As  long  as  the  amount  of  vapor  present  in  the  air  is 
much  less  than  is  required  for  saturation,  evaporation 
goes  on  rapidly,  and  the  air  continues  to  absorb  the  ris- 
ing vapors.  It  is,  therefore,  called  dry  air.  When  the 
air  is  nearly  saturated  evaporation  proceeds  but  very 
slowly  ;  when  saturation  is  reached  evaporation  ceases, 
and  the  air  is  moist  or  humid. 

Visible  masses  of  vapor  resting  on  or  near  the  ground 
are  called  fogs,  while  those  floating  in  the  air  at  a  con- 
siderable height  are  distinguished  as  clouds. 

Condensation  and  rain  are  mostly  caused  by  the  cool- 
ing of  currents  of  warm  air  laden  with  aqueous  vapors. 


316  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Cold  causes  condensation  ;  the  vapors  condensed  fall  as 
rain  ;  hence  rain  is  caused  by  the  cooling  of  air  laden 
with  moisture.  The  temperature  of  tropical  winds  ad- 
vancing into  cooler  latitudes  is  lowered,  the  moisture  is 
then  condensed,  and  the  rain  falls.  Cold  winds,  if  sat- 
urated, advancing  into  warmer  latitudes  become  ex- 
panded, and  their  capacity  for  moisture  is  increased ; 
they  become  less  humid,  the  clouds  dissolve,  and  the  air 
becomes  clear  and  dry. 

Winds  blowing  over  plains  retain  their  moisture,  but 
if  they  strike  a  mountain  they  become  cooled,  and  the 
rain  falls.  Plateaus  usually  receive  less  rain  than  other 
forms  of  relief,  because  the  mountains,  which  form  the 
borders  of  the  greater  number,  prevent  the  vapors  borne 
by  the  winds  from  reaching  them. 

From  these  facts  we  see  that  the  annual  amount  of 
rain  modifies  the  climate  of  a  place. 

Sixth  Modification. — The  annual  quantity  of  rain 
modifies  the  climate  of  a  place. 

The  nature  and  covering  of  the  soil  have  an  influence 
upon  the  condensation  of  the  vapor  in  the 
air.  A  region  with  nothing  to  shield  it  from 
the  burning  rays  of  the  sun  becomes  intensely  heated, 
and  imparts  to  the  superincumbent  air  a  temperature 
so  high  as  to  dissipate  all  clouds  which  may  float  into 
it  from  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  A  covering  of 
vegetation,  on  the  contrary,  shields  the  soil  from  the 
sun's  rays,  keeps  its  temperature  lower,  and  promotes 
condensation.  And  whether  a  region  be  bare  or  covered 
with  vegetation  greatly  affects  its  climate.  From  these 
facts  we  see  that  the  nature  and  covering  of  the  earth 
have  an  influence  upon  climate. 


SOIL,    FORESTS,    VEGETATION  317 

Seventh  Modification. — The  nature  and  covering  of 
the  soil  modify  the  climate  of  a  place. 

The  clearing  of  forests,  the  draining  of  swamps  and 
marshes,  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  etc.,  are 
among  the  operations  of  man  by  which  the 
climate  of  a  country  is  greatly  modified  and  improved. 

Clearing  a  country  of  trees  has  the  effect  of  raising 
the  mean  annual  temperature,  but  at  the  same  time 
introduces  greater  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  Open 
grounds  are  always  frozen  deeper  than  woodlands,  but 
the  latter  retain  the  snow  and  ice  of  winter  to  a  much 
later  period  in  the  spring  than  the  former. 

From  these  facts  we  see  that  the  cultivation  of  a  place 
modifies  its  climate. 

Eighth  Modification. — The  degree  of  cultivation  and 
improvement  modifies  the  climate  of  a  place. 

Both  the  moisture  and  salubrity  of  a  region  are  influ- 
enced by  its  vegetation.  Vegetation. 

The  leaves  of  trees  and  plants  give  forth 
moisture  to  the  atmosphere,  and  take  from  it  its  carbonic 
acid  ;  hence  the  forests  receive  more  rain  than  treeless 
regions  similarly  situated,  while  at  the  same  time  they 
check  the  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  soil ;  thus 
they  equalize  the  irrigation  of  the  surrounding  country 
and  augment  the  volume  of  its  springs  and  rivers  ;  hence 
forests  effect  an  important  modification  of  climate. 

Salubrity  or  the  health  condition  depends  greatly  on 
the  general  character  of  the  surface,  as  to  evenness  or 
unevenness.  When  the  areas  are  even  or  flat  the  waters 
spread  over  larger  surfaces,  become  stagnant,  and  are 
charged  with  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  matter. 


318  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  adjacent  atmosphere  receives  foul  emanations 
from  these  unwholesome  waters,  and  the  region  is  thus 
rendered  insalubrious  and  unhealthful.  Where,  on  the 
contrary,  the  surface  is  uneven  or  broken,  the  waters 
collect  into  narrower  currents  and  move  with  consider- 
able velocity,  carrying  away  decaying  substances,  cleans- 
ing the  region,  and  rendering  its  climate  more  and  more 
wholesome. 

Hence  an  important  modification  in  a  region  results 
from  its  evenness  or  unevenness  of  surface. 

Ninth  Modification — The  evenness  or  unevenness  of 
the  surface  modifies  the  climate  of  a  place. 

RECAPITULATION 

First   Important   Fact — Temperature — that    is,    the 
heat  or  cold  of  a  place — is  an  element  of 

Elements.  -. . 

climate. 

Second  Important  Fact — Humidity — that  is,  whether 
it  is  wet  or  dry — is  an  element  of  climate. 

Third  Important  Fact — The  prevailing  winds  are  an 
element  of  climate. 

General  Law — The  climate  of  a  place  de- 
pends principally  on  its  latitude. 

First  Modification — The  altitude   of    the 
ms'  place  modifies  the  climate. 

Second  Modification — The  proximity  of  mountain 
ranges  modifies  the  climate. 

Third  Modification — The  prevailing  winds  modify 
the  climate. 

Fourth  Modification — The  proximity  of  a  place  to, 
or  its  distance  from,  the  ocean,  modifies  the  climate. 


RECAPITULATION  319 

Fifth  Modification — Ocean  currents  modify  the  cli- 
mate of  a  place. 

Sixth  Modification — The  annual  quantity  of  rain 
modifies  the  climate  of  the  place. 

Seventh  Modification — The  nature  and  covering  of 
the  soil  modify  the  climate  of  a  place. 

Eighth  Modification — The  degree  of  cultivation  and 
improvement  modifies  the  climate  of  a  place. 

Ninth  Modification — The  evenness  or  unevenness  of 
the  surface  modifies  the  climate  of  a  place. 

1.  A  temperate  climate  means  one  that  is    Kinds  of 
neither  too  hot  nor  too  cold.  climate. 

2.  An  extreme  climate  means  one  that  is  either  too 
hot  or  too  cold. 

3 .  A  genial  or  salubrious  climate  means  one  that  is 
in  every  way  agreeable,  favorable  to  health. 

The  condition  of  a  country  in  regard  to  temper- 
ature, moisture,  and  the  prevailing  winds,  is 

'       ,  Definition. 

its  climate. 


HISTORY 

The  facts  of  history  comprise  the  sum  of  the  events 
that  man  has  brought  about  in  all  the  teeming  centuries 
since  first  he  inhabited  the  earth.  The  number  is  be- 
yond the  power  of  imagination  to  conceive,  and  histo- 
rians do  not  attempt  to  enumerate  them.  They  describe 
some  of  the  grandest  and  most  interesting  features 
of  a  nation's  life,  and  leave  the  rest  to  be  inferred  or 
forgotten. 

History  describes  the  past  conditions  and  actions  of 
Keep  facts  in  menj  an(^  investigates  the  causes  which  have 
perspective,  operated  to  produce  them.  History  should 
be  taught  from  a  series  of  progressive  standpoints. 

In  the  history  of  every  nation  there  are  certain  prom- 
inent events  from  which  as  centres  other  minor  events 
have  seemed  to  emanate,  and  to  which  they  bear  refer- 
ence. It  is  only  of  these  great  events  that  we  need  to 
know  the  dates  or  the  minute  particulars.  It  is  a  use- 
less waste  of  time  and  labor  to  commit  to  memory  a 
great  number  of  dates  to  be  speedily  forgotten.  Only 
such  dates  should  be  committed  to  memory  as  are  indis- 
pensable as  landmarks  in  history.  The  sequence  of 
events,  rather  than  the  precise  date  of  each,  is  what  is 
chiefly  necessary. 

The  teaching  that  goes  under  this  name  in  schools  is 
useless  generally  a  farce.  It  consists  usually  in 

teaching.  stringing  together  the  names  and  dates  with 
a  few  facts  of  the  least  important  kind.  Or,  if  more  is 

(32Q) 


INFLUENCE   OF  HISTORY  321 

attempted,  it  is  reading  in  a  text-book  ;  in  which  case 
generally  there  is  little  within  a  child's  sympathy  or 
comprehension,  and  together  are  often  jumbled,  with- 
out purpose  or  method,  facts  of  the  most  diverse  kind, 
from  which  it  is  impossible  to  gain  clear  conceptions. 

Like  geography,  history  should  begin  at  home.  In- 
terest the  children  first  in  the  traditions  of  History 
their  own  school-district  and  village  and  atliome. 
town,  and  soon  they  will  be  eager  for  the  history  of  their 
own  State.  Text-books  on  State  history  are  now  pub- 
lished in  most  of  the  States.  In  New  York,  for  instance, 
Hendrick's  "  History  of  the  Empire  State  "  answers  the 
purpose  admirably,  making  history  a  real  thing  to  pu- 
pils because  it  refers  to  events  that  occured  in  places 
they  have  seen.  All  teachers'  and  regents'  examina- 
tions in  this  State  contain  questions  in  New  York  his- 
tory as  a  part  of  American  history. 

In  most  States  the  law  now  requires  the  teaching  of 
American  history,  and  for  the  best  of   reasons.     For 
history  presents  many  examples  of  good  and      Moral 
great  men  and  women  who  honored  by  their 
noble  deeds  the  age  and  country  in  which  they  lived. 
Such  examples  have  more  influence  upon  the  young  than 
moral  precepts.     The  heart  is  more  easily  moved  to 
virtue  by  incidental  teaching  than  by  direct  teaching. 

The  history  of  such  men  as  Washington,  Franklin, 
Lincoln,  and  scores  of  others,  proves  an  incentive  to 
youth,  and  the  moral  seeds  sown  by  their  examples 
germinate  and  produce  rich  fruit. 

The  reason  why  pupils  take  so  little  interest  in  the 
study  of  history  is  principally  on  account  of    Topical 
the  fragmentary  manner  in  which  the  subject    treatment- 


322  HISTORY 

is  presented  in  our  text-books.  Lessons  in  history 
should  be  assigned  by  topics,  and  not  by  pages.  All 
verbatim  recitations  of  sentences  and  paragraphs  should 
be  forbidden,  and  pupils  should  be  required  to  state  the 
facts  in  their  own  language. 

History  should  be  taught  as  a  methodical  record  of 
Essential  to  important  events.  To  every  American  citi- 
citizenship.  zen  some  knowledge  of  the  history  of  his 
own  country  is  useful ;  he  should  know  of  the  founding, 
progress,  and  growth  of  liberty  in  his  own  country.  To- 
wards the  preservation  of  good  government  and  the  per- 
manency of  our  institutions,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
principles  of  government  and  the  leading  events  of 
history  be  taught  in  our  American  schools. 

The  idea  of  national  unity  and  of  patriotism  should 
rise  above  the  stripes  of  party  and  the  turmoils  of  war, 
and  plant  itself  as  the  one  thing  vital  to  American  in- 
stitutions. That  the  subject  of  history  may  secure 
attention  from  the  teacher,  and  study  from  the  pupils, 
is  the  sincere  wish  of  every  loyal  American  citizen. 
GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Interest  the  pupils  by  a  familiar  talk. 

2.  Examine  the  lessons  with  the  pupils. 

3.  Draw  maps  and  locate  important  places. 

4.  Let  the  maps  be  examined  and  criticised. 

5.  Bring  out  the  prominent,  salient  facts,  with  clear- 
ness. 

6.  Require  pupils  to  classify  and  tabulate  the  lesson, 
and  recite  from  the  tabulation. 

7.  Do  not  require  too  many  dates. 

8.  Let  the  pupils  state  the  causes  of  the  different 
wars  and  their  effects. 


A   MODEL  LESSOR 


323 


9.  Teach  history  as  a  methodical  record  of  important 
events. 

10.  An  objective  representation  should  be  given  by 
means   of   maps  and  charts ;  drawings   and   diagrams 
should  be  placed  on  the  board  of  all  important  matters 
in  the  history  of  the  nation. 

A  MODEL  LESSON 


Important  Questions 


1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 


6.  What  persons  ? 

7.  What  means  ? 
What  losses  ? 
What  results  ? 


8. 
9. 


What  event  ? 
What  causes  ? 
What  battle  ? 
What  time  ? 
What  place  ? 

Taking  these  questions  for  the  model  form,  we  have 
the  following  lesson  : 

History  of  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill 

What  event  ?    Revolutionary  War. 

rl.   Rights  of  arbitrary  govern- 
ment claimed  by  the  Brit- 
"1.  Remote.  ^      ish. 

2.   Character  of  the  King, 
George  III. 


1. 


2.  What  causes?^ 

2.  Direct,     j  1. 

3.  What  battle  ?    Bunker  Hill. 

4.  What  time  ?    1775,  June  17. 

5.  What  place  ?    Breed's  Hill. 


6.   What  persons  ?  - 


American 
Generals. 


British 
Generals. 


Importation  Act. 
Stamp  Act. 


(a)  General  Ward. 

(b)  General  Prescott. 

(c)  General  Putnam. 

(d)  General  Warren. 

(a)  General  Gage. 

(b)  General  Howe. 

(c)  General  Clinton. 

(d)  General  Burgoyne, 


324:  HISTORY 

7    What  Trip*™  ?  5  1-   American— limited. 
7.    What  means    J«    T>™^h_unlimited 


(1.    American— 115  killed,  305  wounded,  and 

8.  What  losses  ?  •<  32  prisoners. 

(  2.   British— 1054  killed  and  wounded. 

(  1.    Remote— Gaining     our 
fl.   American,  -j  Independence. 

(  2.    Direct— Encouraging. 

9.  What  results  ?  1 

9    -RritUh         J  1-    Remote— Defeat. 
[*   j       sh'        \2.   Direct-Discouraging. 

This  model  form  may  apply  to  a  period  of  our  coun- 
try's history,  or  to  a  battle  of  that  period. 

Associate,  as  far  as  possible,  geography  with  history. 

The  review  should  take  three  distinct  forms,  chrono- 
logical, biographical,  and  geographical.  In 
the  chronological,  the  pupil  should  state  all 
of  the  principal  dates  ;  in  the  biographical  all  that  has 
been  learned  in  regard  to  particular  individuals  ;  and  in 
the  geographical,  whatever  he  can  state  of  all  important 
facts  relating  to  the  history  of  a  locality. 

These  reviews  may  be  made  spirited  exercises,  by  re- 
questing the  class  to  write  a  few  of  the  essential  dates, 
the  sequence  of  important  events,  the  names  of  impor- 
tant individuals.  The  system  of  the  reviews  above  sug- 
gested, must,  if  faithfully  carried  out,  result  in  a 
thorough  unifying  of  the  general  subject  of  history. 

Many  of  the  facts  of  history  may  be  given  in  reading, 
incidental  an<^  especially  in  geography  lessons.  Such 
lessons.  facts  embrace  pictures  of  social  condition, 
growth  of  manufactures  and  of  populous  districts,  actions 
that  have  made  particular  places  celebrated,  and  inci- 
dents in  the  lives  of  remarkable  men.  Through  these 
the  mind,  furnished  with  some  of  the  material  of  his- 


TOPICAL    T£ACiiIH£  325 

tory,    may  pursue   with   more   advantage  to   itself  its 
systematic  study. 

Lessons  on  any  subject  are  thus  more  adhesive  than 
when  given  to  a  mind  entirely  ignorant  of  it. 

United  States  history  may  be  taught  in  a  way  to  make 
it  of  very  little  use.     To  memorize  a  dry 
narrative  will  be  of  little  avail  except  to  in- 
spire disgust  with  history  in  general.     But  all  modern 
text-books  accept  the  topical  method  of  arrangement, 
at  least  in  their  summaries,  and  Northam's  ' '  Helps  in 
Fixing  the  Leading  Facts  of  American  History  "  makes 
this  topical  review  practicable  in  every  school. 

Here  all    facts  are     1775.    L — exington. 
presented   in    groups.     1776.    I — ndependence. 
The   key-word  to  the     1777.    B — urgoyne's  surrender. 
Revolution,     for     in-     1778.    E — vacuation. 
stance,  is  LIBERTY,     1779.    R— etribution. 
as  shown   in   the   ac-     1780.    T — reason, 
company  ing    table   of     1781.    Y — orktown. 
Key-  Words  ;  and  in  like  manner  the  events  of  the  late 
civil  war  are  kept  chronologically  distinct  by  the  key- 
words SLAVES  FREED.     Chart  No.   1  indicates  by 
stars  the  years  in  each  decade  from  1492  to  1789  in 
which  the  most  remarkable  events  occurred,  while  the 
colored  Chart  No.  2  arranges  the  events  under  the  Con- 
stitution in  the  following  groups :  (1)  Acquisition  of 
Territory,  (2)  Financial  Matters,  (3)  Tariff,  (4)  Treaties 
and  Compromises,  (5)  Wars  and  Rebellions,  (6)  Important 
Proclamations,   (7)  Great  Inventions,   (8)    Slavery,  (9) 
Epidemics,  (10)  Conflagrations,  (11)  New  States,  (12) 
Deaths  and   Resignations  of  President  or  Vice-Presi- 
dent. 


326  HISTORY 

In  all  your  teaching  the  principle  of  proceeding  from 
From  known  ^ne  known  to  the  unknown  must  be  followed, 
to  unknown.  ^  clear  picture  of  the  present  must  be  drawn, 
embracing,  in  their  order,  all  of  the  above  particulars. 
The  method,  whatever  it  may  be,  should  quicken  the 
pupils'  observation,  and  lead  them  to  see  some  impor- 
tance in  matters  of  everyday  life.  Every  succeeding 
lesson  should  bring  up  vividly  the  condition  of  man  in 
the  past,  and  compare  it,  in  its  several  particulars,  with 
things  now.  This  will  make  more  and  more  evident 
how  great  has  been  the  change,  and  how  much  for  the 
better.  The  pupils  should  see  how  events,  both  great 
and  small,  have  contributed  to  the  prosperity  and  the 
advancement  of  the  people. 

The  aim  in  teaching  history  should  be  to  inculcate 
those  moral  lessons  which  it  is  the  office  of 
history  to  teach  by  example.  What,  for  in- 
stance, could  be  better  adapted  to  produce  a  spirit  of 
contentment  and  thankfulness,  than  a  clear  knowledge 
of  the  present  condition  of  our  country,  with  its  points 
of  superiority  over  that  of  other  nations  ?  What  better 
opportunity  can  be  desired  for  showing  and  enforcing 
the  necessity  of  character  and  skilled  industry  than  is 
afforded  while  tracing  the  improvements  and  the  progress 
of  our  nation  for  the  past  one  hundred  years  ? 


Among  books  that  will  aid  in  teaching  history  are  "  A  Thous- 
and Questions  in  U.  S.  History  ",  $1.00  ;  Williams's  "Topics  and 
References  in  American  History  ",  50  cts. ;  Juliand's  "  Brief  Views 
of  U.  S.  History  ",  50  cts.,  and  Van  Wie's  "  Outlines  in  U.  S.  His- 
tory", 15  cts.  Edwards's  Historical  Cards  on  United  States  His- 
tory ($1.00),  and  General  History  ($1.00),  and  his  Historical  Game 
1 '  Our  Country  "  (50  cts),  are  excellent  helps. 


OBJECT  LESSONS 


Can  the  natural  sciences  be  profitably  taught  to  the 
average  pupils  in  our  schools  ?  Our  first  inquiry  leads 
us  to  distinguish  between  the  natural  and  the  artificial 
studies  to  which  the  children  are  introduced. 

The  child's  mind  is  an  instrument  for  acquiring 
rather  than  using  knowledge.  He  voluntar-  Education 
ily  begins  the  study  of  nature.  Here  he  goes  by  nature- 
to  school  long  before  his  parents  send  him.  He  touches 
with  child-hand  many  forces,  and  tries  to  grasp  them. 
His  studies  are  natural,  for  they  are  in  the  order  of  his 
mental  development.  Study  is  play  ;  play  is  study.  The 
objective  part  of  mathematics  unfolds  to  him  the  shapes 
and  numbers  of  things.  He  begins  physics  with  the 
weight  of  his  toy,  or  watching  the  ripple  and  dash  of 
brook,  or  the  whirl  of  the  water-wheel.  He  opens 
his  botany  when  he  plucks  a  flower,  distinguishing  color 
and  form.  He  notices  the  material  8f  rocks,  and 
gathers  various  stones  like  a  zealous  mineralogist. 

A  child  confined  as  many  pupils  are  to  the  reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic  method  of  discipline, 
might  as  well  be  brought  up  in  a  desert  as    contrary  to 
in  the  world  of  beauty  and  power  which  sur- 
rounds him.     His  eyes  are  gradually  closed  to  a  thous- 
and alluring  truths ;  his  ears  are  dulled  to  the  myriad 
voices  of  nature.     It  is  still  true  that  to  a  majority  of 

(327) 


328  OBJECT   LESSOKS 

pupils  in  the  public  schools,  the  acquiring  of  knowledge 
is  uninteresting  and  positively  irksome. 

But  right  teaching  requires  that  the  child's  powers  of 
Sense  knowing  accurately  should  be  developed, 

teaching.  an(j  hence  should  begin  and  largely  continue 
with  his  senses.  "Words  and  number,  over  which  so 
much  time  is  spent  in  reading,  spelling,  and  arithmet- 
ical problems,  are  valuable  to  his  mental  development, 
as  they  are  associated  with  things  really  known.  Hence 
the  elements  of  science  furnish  the  proper  material  for 
such  study.  Knowledge  is  not  power  to  the  child,  if  it 
is  abstract.  He  cannot  use  knowledge  which  lies  be- 
yond the  sphere  of  his  daily  observation  and  experience. 
What  the  state  needs  is  intelligent  citizens,  and  intelli- 
gent youth  from  whom  they  can  be  made.  These  come 
of  the  power  of  knowing  and  judging  accurately.  We 
claim  for  the  Natural  Sciences  this  effect  on  the  child. 
They  deal  with  facts  more  sensible  than  those  of  arith- 
metic. The  parts  of  a  leaf  or  of  a  flower  are  definite, 
easily  comprehended,  and  classified  with  certainty.  This 
is  true  of  the  nature  and  species  of  the  common  animals, 
shells  and  insects,  the  constituents  of  a  stone,  the  qual- 
ities of  an  acid  or  gas,  the  history  of  a  rock  traced  in 
forms  of  life,  the  nature  and  effect  even  of  geological 
changes. 

No  wide  range  of  knowledge  is  required  to  under- 
Mental  stand  definitely  and  surely  scientific  facts 
training.  simply  presented  to  the  youthful  mind.  It 
easily  comprehends  them  as  a  whole.  We  claim,  there- 
fore, that  to  whatever  degree  the  reasoning  faculties 
should  be  developed  to  furnish  the  child-mind  with 
power,  this  is  best  secured  by  its  reasoning  on  facts  and 


HABITS   OF   OBSERVATIOH  329 

things  rather  than  on  abstract  ideas,  to  which  children's 
studies  are  often  confined.  The  last  knowledge  gained 
by  man  is  the  correct  understanding  of  human  nature, 
of  the  causes  of  human  actions.  The  sciences  teach  the 
relations  of  cause  and  effect  in  their  clearest  manifesta- 
tions. With  enlarged  comprehension  the  child  may 
learn  the  secondary  character  of  causes.  He  will  trace 
their  relation  to  effects  with  the  certainty  of  conviction 
to  his  mind.  Thence  will  be  imparted  the  element  of 
positiveness  to  the  pupiFs  acquirements  and  habits  of 
character.  He  learns  to  act  unwaveringly  on  what  he 
knows,  and  to  know  positively  that  upon  which  he  acts. 
Correcting  by  his  own  observations  the  conclusions  to 
which  he  is  led  by  the  inductive  methods  of  science, 
he  gains  independence  in  thought,  and,  with  that,  confi- 
dence in  his  own  powers  of  judging,  which  are  the  safe- 
guards of  his  character  and  of  his  rights  as  a  freeman 
under  our  republican  institutions. 

Thus  early  introduced  to  the  elements  of  science,  the 
foundations  of  his  character  as  a  citizen  are  n^\^  Of 
more  broadly  laid.  The  child  becomes  more  observation, 
inclusive  in  thought,  more  inventive  through  familiar- 
ity with  the  mechanism  of  nature,  and  more  appreci- 
ative of  the  wealth  and  beauty  of  his  country's  resources. 
Taught  to  observe,  he  never  ceases  to  be  affected  by  the 
changing  lines  and  hues  of  nature  which  his  daily  vision 
embraces,  and  the  elements  of  a  true  aesthetic  culture 
find  place  in  him  which  will  add  to  his  certain  worth 
and  power  as  a  citizen.  The  old  idea  that  knowledge  is 
for  discipline  is  faithfully  maintained  in  our  education. 
Yet  knowledge  is  one  of  the  natural  desires  of  the  mind. 
The  true  science  of  education  will  make  it  a  pleasure. 


330  OBJECT   LESSONS 

This  will  require  for  the  senses  larger  opportunity  than 
they  now  enjoy.  Moreover,  we  owe  to  the  State  and 
its  free  institutions,  to  raise  the  standard  of  intelligence 
and  culture  among  the  people,  among  mechanics,  farm- 
ers, merchants,  and  laborers  in  the  mill  or  street.  A 
discernment  of  the  true  nature  and  qualities  of  things, 
in  their  daily  use  will  secure  this  far  better  than  drills 
in  spelling,  arithmetic,  and  grammar.  The  mass  of  our 
citizens  are  not  intelligent  enough  to  understand  one- 
half  the  instruction  contained  in  a  good  weekly  news- 
paper. 
We  make,  therefore,  this  demand  for  the  sciences — 

Place  should  ^rs^  ^na^  ^nev  ^ave  an  e(lual  place  with  the 
be  made.  usual  studies  of  primary  and  grammar  and 
district  schools  ;  secondly,  that  our  teachers  be  required 
to  make  plain  the  elements  of  the  sciences  to  pupils  be- 
low fourteen  years  of  age,  at  the  expense  of  rote-drills 
and  problems  in  arithmetic,  grammatical  analysis,  spel- 
ling without  definitions,  and  the  time  spent  in  prepar- 
ing for  pretentious  written  examinations,  imposed  at 
too  early  an  age,  that  have  become  one  of  the  worst 
abuses  of  an  artificial  system  in  public  work. 

I.     WITHOUT  APPARATUS 

But  how  should  these  sciences  be  taught  in  district 
Methods  of  schools,  or  grades  below  the  high  school? 
teaching.  The  efforts  of  authors  of  elementary  text- 
books in  science  are  not  entirely  successful ;  most  of 
them  are  still  too  technical.  There  is  less  vividness  in 
the  statement  of  the  facts  of  science,  less  personification 
and  idealizing  of  the  study,  than  a  child's  apprehension 
demands.  The  ancients  taught  their  children  the  forces 


INCIDENTAL   TEACHING  331 

and  sounds  and  shapes  of  the  waters  and  fields  and 
forests,  by  personifications  of  nymphs  and  dryads,  gods 
and  goddesses,  in  whose  histories  and  habits  they  were 
personally  interested.  So  should  the  stories  of  insects, 
fishes,  mollusks,  birds,  and  well  known  animals,  or  of 
plants  and  stones,  be  told  without  text-books  by  the 
teacher,  with  scientific  truthfulness  as  to  their  modes  of 
life  and  motion.  Thus  children  would  become  familiar 
with  their  living  forms.  With  text-books  in^^ntai 
still  defective,  the  teacher's  opportunity  lies  teachine- 
in  what  President  Hill  calls  the  incidental  method.  Let 
her  have  specimens  of  minerals,  leaves,  insects,  flowers, 
pictures  of  birds  and  animals,  and  simple  apparatus  for 
illustrating  chemical  and  physical  forces,  in  order  to 
make  real  to  her  classes  the  subjects  of  the  lesson.  By 
a  hundred  well  selected  stereoscopic  pictures  she  could 
teach  physical  and  political  geography  as  effectively  as 
the  shapes,  circles,  and  seasons  of  the  earth  by  a  globe. 
Thus  the  text-book  in  the  hands  of  a  suggestive  and 
excursive  teacher  will  become  secondary  to  her  personal 
power  to  make  knowledge  real  and  interesting  to  the 
youngest  pupils  in  her  classes.  Yet  the  text-book  in 
science  will  give  the  study  equal  dignity  with  the  arith- 
metic in  the  mind  of  the  scholar,  whilst  it  corrects  the 
unscientific  or  garrulous  tendencies  of  the  teacher. 

Moreover,  no  other  studies  will  so  naturally  develop 
the  personal  power  of  the  teacher.  Proceed-  Enthusiasm 
ing  by  the  method  of  nature,  step  by  step  aroused, 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown,  she  will  awaken 
enthusiasm  in  the  class,  and  from  the  fullness  of  her 
devotion  to  the  subject  there  will  be  an  overflow  into 
the  minds  of  the  pupils.  Rote-teaching  in  these  ele- 


332  OBJECT   LESSONS 

ments  of  science  is  utterly  defenceless.  Every  class  of 
facts  and  every  principle  involved  should  have  illustra- 
tion from  the  wide  range  of  nature.  The  living  method 
should  be  employed  in  the  sciences.  Every  sense  and 
power  of  the  child  can  be  grasped  and  applied  to  them 
by  the  live  teacher. 

The  chief  purposes  of  the  object  lessons  are  two  :  first, 
object  ^°  cultivate  habits  of  careful  observation  and 

lessons.  reflection  ;  and  second,  to  give  facility  in  oral 
description.  When  properly  given  they  involve  the 
systematic  discipline  of  the  perceptive  faculties  and  of 
the  judgment,  of  imagination  and  the  memory  of  facts, 
and  in  the  use  of  language. 

The  method  that  should  be  pursued  is  that  known  as 
the  objective  method.  This  presents  two  distinct 
though  intimately  related  departments :  perceptive 
teaching,  in  which  the  object,  as  an  acorn,  an  egg,  a 
leaf,  or  a  piece  of  coal,  is  directly  presented  to  the 
pupil's  senses  ;  and  conceptive  teaching,  in  which  impres- 
sions previously  received  are  recalled,  arranged,  and  util- 
ized, the  objects  themselves  not  being  presented  to  the 
senses  during  the  lesson.  A  lesson  upon  an  oak,  an 
elephant,  or  a  thunder  storm  would  fall  under  the  latter 
department.  The  use  of  pictures,  models,  or  other  sen- 
sible representations  of  objects,  is  an  important  com- 
bination and  modification  of  the  two  departments. 

Definitions  should  be  very  sparingly  introduced,  and 
never  in  the  first  stages  of  a  subject.  If 

Definitions,          .  ,,     ,,  ,        , .  .    d       .    _ 

given  at  all,  they  should  sum  up  knowledge 
already  attained.  They  should  be  as  brief  as  possible 
and  should  be  carefully  prepared  for  by  a  process  at  once 
inductive  and  objective.  The  words  organic,  inorganic, 


THE  VITAL  ELEMENT  333 

vegetable,  animal  and  mineral,  are  prominent  among  the 
very  few  terms  requiring  definition.  In  every  stage  of 
the  lessons,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  indispensable 
definitions,  the  language  used  by  the  pupil  should  be 
entirely  his  own,  and  all  set  forms  of  words  should  be 
carefully  avoided.  "Familiar  objects",  and  familiar 
animals,  plants  and  minerals  should  take  precedence  of 
all  others  in  the  selection  of  topics. 

The  process  employed  will  necessarily  present  two 
distinct  stages  in  accordance  with  the  two 
chief  purposes  of  these  lessons  already  re- 
ferred to.  The  first  may  be  called  the  analytic  or  pre- 
paratory, and  furnishes  the  principal  discipline  of  the 
powers  of  observation  and  reflection.  In  this  stage, 
which  is  largely  conversational,  the  teacher  leads  the 
pupils  by  questions  or  otherwise  to  discover  or  remem- 
ber the  properties  or  peculiarities  of  an  object,  or  to 
state  any  other  important  facts  associated  with  it.  The 
points  thus  considered  should  be  written  upon  the 
black-board  in  very  brief  synoptical  form,  but  each  only 
after  it  has  been  dwelt  upon. 

The  vital  element  in  this  part  of  the  work,  that  which 
gives  it  a  living  interest  to  the  pupil,  is  the  The  ^^ 
discovery  or  learning  of  new  facts,  or  the  elei»ent. 
gaining  of  new  ideas  about  the  object  under  considera- 
tion. It  is  evident  that  from  the  nature  of  the  case 
this  important  element  must  be  chiefly  limited  to  the 
first  presentation  of  the  object.  Reviews,  although  for 
certain  purposes  indispensable,  soon  become,  at  least  as 
far  as  this  element  is  concerned,  much  like  "a  thrice- 
told  tale  ".  This  makes  it  all  the  more  important  that 
the  teacher  should  have  an  outline  of  the  lesson  care- 


334  OBJECT  LESSONS 

• 

fully  prepared  beforehand,  so  as  to  be  sure  to  include 
the  points  most  likely  to  be  interesting  and  instructive. 
Any  additional  point  or  fact  afterwards  drawn  from  the 
class  may  be  readily  incorporated. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  the  effort  to 
small  "  Develop  the  perceptive  powers  "  of  children 

classes.  j^g  fts  iimit,  especially  when  applied  to  large 

classes.  In  teaching  a  little  group  of  four  or  five,  com- 
paratively little  difficulty  should  be  found  by  the  skilful 
teacher.  But  when  the  class  ranges  in  number  from 
forty  to  sixty  in  the  grammar  school,  and  to  seventy- 
five  in  the  primary,  and  when  at  the  same  time  owing 
to  the  pressure  of  the  other  and  more  directly  important 
exercises  of  a  graded  school  the  time  given  to  oral  les- 
sons is  limited  to  a  very  few  minutes,  it  is  evident  that 
the  problem  is  a  different  and  more  formidable  one. 

In  the  first  lesson  upon  any  given  object  or  phenome- 
Get  answers  non>  un^ss  great  care  is  taken  to  prevent  it, 
from  all.  a  few  pupils  of  naturally  quick  perceptions 
will  give  most  of  the  responses,  and  the  rest  of  the  class 
will  be  as  really  "told"  by  their  classmates  as  if  the 
information  had  been  given  by  the  teacher., 

It  is  true  that  in  both  cases  there  is  an  exercise  of  the 
perceptive  faculties ;  but  it  is  obvious  that  the  mental 
condition  in  which  we  follow  and  verify  a  statement 
made  by  another  is  usually  one  of  far  less  vigorous  and 
profitable  activity  than  that  in  which  we  discover  a  fact 
of  ourselves.  The  former  may  be  called  the  perception 
of  discovery,  the  latter  the  perception  of  verification. 
Nevertheless,  from  the  very  nature  and  condition  of 
class-teaching,  the  lower  and  the  less  profitable  form  of 
the  mental  exercise  will  be  the*  predominating  one.  The 


DEVELOPMENT  335 

methods  of  reducing  this  evil  to  a  practical  minimum 
will  be  obvious  to  the  experienced  teacher.  It  is  also 
well  for  us  to  consider  how  large  a  part  of  what  we  call 
our  own  knowledge  has  become  ours  only  through  veri- 
fying the  statements  and  perceptions  of  others. 

The  processes  and  results  of  this  first  or  preparatory 
stage  of  the  work,  important  and  interesting  as  they 
may  be,  are  entirely  subordinate  to  the  second  stage. 
The  preparatory  stage  collects  the  material  for  the  work 
that  is  to  follow  ;  the  lumber,  lime,  bricks  and  stone  for 
the  edifice  that  is  now  to  be  constructed  with  them. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  SUBJECT 

Let  us  suppose  that  the  subject  of  our  lesson  is  Salt. 
The  teacher  has  given  the  lesson  with  due  Pointsde_ 
attention  to  the  requirements  of  the  objective  veioped. 
method.  The  qualities,  as  learned  by  the  senses,  the 
kinds,  uses,  and  sources  of  salt  have  been  considered. 
To  these  points  have  been  added  the  chief  source  of  our 
own  supply,  the  singular  fact  that  it  is  a  mineral  food, 
its  necessity  to  the  health  of  the  body,  a  brief  reference  to 
its  ancient  use  as  a  symbol  of  hospitality  and  to  certain 
superstitions  which  still  cling  to  it,  together  with  such 
other  simple  and  interesting  facts  as  seemed  appropriate. 

In  that  stage  of  the  lesson  which  we  have  now  reached, 
the  chief  discipline  is  of  the  memory  of  facts.  "  What 
do  you  know  or  remember  about  salt  ?  "  should  be  the 
teacher's  only  question  :  except  when  an  error  is  made 
in  the  statement  of  facts,  when  a  proper  question  or 
two  should  lead  to  its  correction,  not  by  the  teacher, 
but  by  the  class.  The  points  as  written  upon  the  black- 
board in  the  order  in  which  the  pupils  remember  them 


336  OBJECT   LESSORS 

will  be  something  like  the  following,  omitting  the  pre- 
fixed numerals,  which  will  presently  be  explained.  • 

Salt 

3.  Taste,  9.  Springs,  6.  Made  into  Soda, 

4.  Seasoning,  10.  Ocean,  2.  Soluble, 

1.  White,  11.  Sparkling,  13.  Hospitality, 

7.  Kinds,  12.  Granular,  14.  Superstitions. 

8.  Mines,  5.  Preserves  meat  and  fish, 

The  next  step  is  to  have  the  class,  not  the  teacher, 
condense  and  arrange  this  miscellaneous  list 

Arrangement.      ...  ..  •••.          •,          -,     •* 

of  items  into  a  brief  and  orderly  synopsis. 
This  is  a  point  of  prime  importance,  but  is  so  simple  in 
practice  that  any  ordinary  class  will  need  but  one  illus- 
tration in  order  to  apply  the  principle.  With  beginners 
this  will  be  best  understood  by  illustrating  with  some 
short  story — one  well-known  to  pupils  is  best.  Whit- 
tington  and  his  Cat  would  do  admirably.  Write  the 
chief  points  of  the  legend  on  the  blackboard  in  brief, 
synoptical  form,  but  in  an  absurdly  illogical  order : 

Whittington — a  chest  of  gold — goes  to  sea — born  in  London — 
Mayor — cat  given  him — dies  respected — poor  boy,  etc. ,  etc. 

If  now  the  teacher  will  begin  to  tell  the  story,  follow- 
ing the  exact  order  of  the  synopsis,  the  class  will  soon 
object,  and  may  readily  be  lead  to  number  the  items  in 
the  order  in  which  they  should  be  stated  in  telling  the 
story. 

A  very  little  practice  will  enable  the  class  to  number 
the  items  relating  to  salt  substantially  as  they  are  num- 
bered in  the  synopsis  already  given.  When  these  are 
arranged  according  to  the  principles  of  object  teaching, 
they  will  condense  into — 


LESSON   OK   SALT  337 

Salt 

1.  Qualities — 3  :  White ;  soluble  ;  saline  taste. 

2.  Kinds— 3  :  Rock  ;  bay  ;  table. 

3.  Uses — 3  :  Seasoning  ;  preserving  meat,  etc. ;  soda. 

4.  Sources — 3  :  Mines  ;  springs  ;  ocean. 

5.  Associations — 2  :  Hospitality  ;  superstitions. 

In  making  up  a  final  synopsis  such  as  this,  great  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  overload  a  subject  by  Not  too  many 
a  multiplicity  of  details.  To  accomplish  details- 
this,  only  the  most  important  items  of  the  irregular 
synopsis  should  be  taken.  To  attempt  more  is  to  cause 
the  lesson  to  break  of  its  own  weight.  Most  of  the  ob- 
jects properly  selected  as  the  basis  of  the  lessons  of  the 
lower  grades  may  readily  be  reduced  to  form  seven  to 
ten  items.  The  smaller  the  number  the  better. 

Now  what  use  is  to  be  made  of  this  synopsis  ?     It  is 
obvious  that  if  the  pupil  has  the  synopsis  be-    Ut5e  of 
fore  him  on  the  blackboard  and  is  called  upon    syn°Psis- 
to  state  without  being  questioned  what  he  knows  about 
salt,  the  synopsis  will  be  to  him  a  brief  set  of  arranged 
suggestions  or  notes,  and  that  with  a  little  practice  he 
will  be  able  with  its  aid  to  make  a  "  continuous  oral 
statement".     But  a  much  more  important  use  can  be 
made  of  this  synopsis. 

The  next  step  is  to  train  the  class  to  reproduce  it  for 
themselves.      This   will   be   found  to  be  of 

...  .  Reproduction. 

great  practical  importance,  and  is  indeed  in- 
dispensable. The  memory  will  now  be  called  into  ex- 
ercise to  remember  the  facts,  and  the  brief  notes  with 
which  they  are  associated.  The  judgment  will  be 
trained  to  arrange  them  in  their  logical  order  of  se- 
quence. When  by  many  lessons  this  has  been  made  a 


338  OBJECT   LESSONS 

mental  habit,  the  influence  of  the  training  will  be  felt 
upon  all  the  other  school  lessons,  as  well  as  through  life. 
There  are  several  ways  of  accomplishing  this  step  of  re- 
producing the  synopsis.  The  following  is  one  of  the 
most  simple,  expeditious,  and  efficient.  Skilful  teach- 
ers will  readily  devise  methods  of  their  own. 

1.  Write  the  seven  to  ten  or  more  items  upon  the 
blackboard  in  their  proper  order.     This  has  already  been 
determined  by  the  pupil.     Place  its  proper  number  be- 
fore each  item. 

2.  Tell  the  pupils  to  look  carefully  at  the  items  and 
try  to  remember  them,  and  that  you  will  presently  re- 
quire them  to  be   written  in  the  same  way  upon  the 
slates  and  from  memory. 

3.  Cover  the  synopsis  with  a  newspaper  or  the  con- 
venient screen,  and  at  a  given  signal  let  the  pupils  try 
to  reproduce  it  upon  their  slates. 

4.  Call  upon  one  to  read  what  he  has  written,  and  let 
the  rest  of  the  class,  without  looking  upon  their  slates, 
tell  what  he  has  omitted  or  what  error  he  has  made. 
Then  give  all  a  brief  opportunity  to  correct  and  com- 
plete.    Have  the  slates  cleaned,  and  try  once  or  twice 
more,  if  necessary,  until  a  reasonably  correct  result  is 
obtained.     Clear  the  synopsis  from  the  blackboard. 

5.  The  final  step  is  obvious.     It  is  that  for  which  all 
that  precedes  has  been  the  preparation.     Let  a  sufficient 
number  of  pupils  be  called  upon  one  after  another  to 
make  a  connected  oral  statement  of  such  facts  and  ideas 
as  each  can  properly  recall,  glancing  from  time  to  time, 
as  he  may  find  it  necessary,  at  the  synopsis  upon  his 
slate. 


REPRODUCTION  339 

SPECIMEN  OBJECT  LESSOR 

(  The  Bear —  Use  pictures. ) 

Parts 

Broad  head  ;  strong,  clumsy  body,  covered  with  long  coarse 
hair ;  stout  thick  legs ;  short  tail ;  large,  slightly  pointed  ears ; 
small,  bright  eyes  ;  front  teeth  in  both  jaws  ;  canine  teeth  (two 
in  each  jaw),  long,  strong,  and  slightly  curved  backwards ; 
molars  broad  and  surmounted  with  tubercles ;  five  toes  on  each 
foot,  each  having  a  long,  stout,  curved  claw  or  nail,  fitted  for  dig- 
ging or  climbing  (not  retractile).  Sole  of  foot  naked  ;  simple 
stomach. 

Hcibits 

Eats  animal  and  vegetable  food  ;  walks  on  his  flat  feet  (hence 
called  plantigrade) ;  climbs  trees ;  nocturnal ;  stands  readily  on 
hind  feet ;  uses  fore  feet  for  defence  by  striking  or  hugging. 

Uses 

Flesh,  leather,  fur,  curiosity. 

Dwell  on  adaptation  of  parts  to  habits  and  uses. 

Miscellaneous 

Cunning,  unsocial ;  spends  the  winter  in  caves  or  in  hollow 
trees,  almost  without  food  ;  dangerous  and  formidable  ;  some- 
times called  Bruin.  (Why  ?) 

A  few  lessons  should  be  given  with  the  use  of  pic- 
tures, upon  the  lion,  tiger,  wolf,  fox,  raccoon.  The 
cat,  dog,  and  bear  being  the  types  of  the  families  to 
which  they  respectively  belong,  the  matter  furnished 
above  will  answer  in  all  essential  particulars  for  classi- 
fying the  other  animals. 

Give  lessons  on  likenesses  and  differences ;  from  the 
former  get  the  idea  and  term  carniverous,  and  from  the 
latter  the  following : 


340  OBJECT   LESSONS 

(Cat  family. 
Bear     " 
X 

NOTE. — The  other  families  of  this  order  are  not  given,  because 
to  attempt  so  much  would  defeat  the  object  of  the  lessons. 

Models  for  identifying  or  describing  : 

Oral 

The  lion  is  a  wild,  ferocious,  toe-walking  animal,  that  belongs 
to  the  cat  family  of  carnivorous  animals. 

Written 
Wild. 

g 


Carnivorous 
Animals. 


Claws  retractile. 

Front  teeth  in  both  jaws. 

Canine,  long,  hooked,  fit- 
ted for  tearing.  !  parnivorous 

Molars,     uneven,     sharp,    > 
fitted  for  cutting. 

Simple  stomach.  j 

After  each  animal  studied  has  been  identified  accord- 
ing to  plans  given,  and  a  general  talk  had  upon  the 
whole  order,  a  composition  should  be  written  upon  the 
subject,  Carnivorous  Animals. 

Several  weeks  may  be  spent  profitably  upon  a  com- 
parison of  Herbivorous  and  Carnivorous  animals. 

The  following  points  are  suggested. 

Kinds  of  teeth.  Kinds  of  food. 

Kinds  of  stomachs.  Nature  of  food. 

Shape  and  comparative  size  of  trunks,  )  Qnantitv  of  fnorl 

especially  the  abdominal  region.  f  *** 

Acuteness  of  senses.  {  M™  °f  °btaining 

Pliability  of  osseous  structure.  j  Mt™  of  obtaininS 


USE  OF   APPARATUS  341 

Freedom  of  motion  of  the  )  j  Manner  of  obtaining 

limbs.  f  (      food. 

._.    ,      -  „  (  General  habits,  manner 

Kinds  of  feet.  -j     of  obtaining  food. 

Muscular  power,  (Relative.)    )  (  Obstacles  to  be   over- 
Limbs  as  weapons  of  offence    [-  -        •]      come    in    obtaining 

or  defence.                              )  (      food. 
The  animal  in  each  order  most } 

remote  from  the  type.  Food  (both  kinds.) 
(Hog,  bear.)                                 ) 

For  an  ideal  lesson  on  the  Duck,  see  Hooper's  "Object-Teach- 
ing, or  Words  and  Things". 

II.     WITH  APPARATUS 
/.     Directions 

1.  Let  the  pupils  describe  the  apparatus. 

2.  Let  the  pupils  perform  the  experiments. 

3.  Let  the  pupils  announce  the  experiments. 

4.  Use  simple  objects  and  illustrations. 

5.  Proceed  by  rudimentary  facts. 

6.  Proceed  by  individual  cases  to  deduce  laws. 

7.  Let  the  principles  be  developed  by  the  pupils. 

8.  Let  the  pupils  perceive  that  we  arrive  at  results  by 
three  different  ways  :  1st,  Jby  observation  ;  2d,  by  expert 
ment ;  3d,  by  considering  effects. 

II.     Cautions 

1.  Speak  slowly. 

2.  Repeat  carefully. 

3.  Use  simple  language. 

4.  Write  points  on  the  board. 

5.  Require  pupils  to  copy. 

6.  Keep  close  to  the  subject. 

7.  Require  pupils  to  answer  in  complete  statements. 


342  OBJECT   LESSONS 

8.  Eepeat  experiments  and  illustrations. 

9.  Reproduce  each  lesson  carefully. 

10.  Never  use  a  term  that  has  not  been  fully   de- 
veloped. 

11.  Guide  the  pupil's  thoughts,  but  do  not  lead  them. 

12.  Arrange  a  definite  plan. 

13.  Work  so  as  to  secure  and  hold  attention. 

14.  Let  your  object  be  to  guide  pupils  to  see  clearly 
and  infer  correctly. 

GENERAL  FORMULA 
/.     Objects  should  be  presented, 

1.  To  the  senses,  or  perception  ; 

2.  To  the  reflective  or  reasoning  powers. 

3.  Their  features  should  be  thoroughly  memorized. 

//.     Ideas  should  be  developed, 

1.  By  appealing  to  the  senses. 

2.  By  comparison. 

3.  By  experiment. 

4.  By  reason. 

SPECIMEN  LESSON  ON  DIVISIBILITY 

The  teacher  should  have  on  the  table  different  articles, 
as  slips  of  wood,  a  lump  of  coal,  pieces  of  glass,  brick, 
stone,  etc.,  glass  jar  containing  water,  cochineal,  car- 
mine, etc. 

First,  let  the  pupils  describe  the  articles,  as : 
"You  hold  in  your  hand  a  piece  of  pine  wood  ten  inches  in 
length,  two  inches  in  breadth  and  one-half  inch  in  thickness. " 

See  that  they  express  the  truth  and  use  accurate 
language. 


LESSOR   OK   DIVISIBILITY  343 

"  You  hold  in  your  hand  a  lump  of  coal  about  as  large  as  a 
hen's  egg." 

"  You  have  in  your  hand  a  piece  of  brick  about  four  inches  in 
length,  four  inches  in  breadth,  and  two  inches  in  thickness. " 

"  You  hold  in  your  hand  a  glass  jar  containing  one  quart  of 
clear  water,"  etc.,  etc. 

The  teacher  may  now  place  in  the  hands  of  the  pupil 

a  small  slip  of  wood  and  tell  him  to  do  some- 
wood, 
thing  with  it.     The  pupil  will  either  break, 

cut,  or  split  it.  The  teacher  will  ask  him  to  observe 
what  he  has  done  with  it.  The  pupil  will  answer,  "  I 
have  broken  it."  The  teacher  will  so  question  the 
pupils  as  to  draw  out  an  answer  similar  to  the  following  : 
"The  wood  may  be  separated  into  parts." 

Again  the  teacher  will  request  one  of  the  pupils  to 
take  the  hammer  and  do  something  with  the 
coal.     The  pupil  will  break  it,  and  he  per- 
ceives that  the  coal  may  be  broken  into  pieces. 

The  teacher  will  also  question  the  pupil  so  as  to  draw 
out  the  following  answer :  "  Coal  may  be 
separated  into  parts."  So  proceed  with  the 
brick,  glass,  stone,  iron,  etc.,  and  lastly  take  the  glass 
jar  and  put  in  a  few  grains  of  cochineal,  carmine,  or 
indigo,  and  let  the  pupils  notice  the  effects.  They  will 
say  that  the  cochineal  is  coloring  the  water ;  let  them 
see  that  the  cochineal  is  separated  into  thousands  of  parts; 
lead  them  to  say  that  cochineal  "  may  be  separated  into 
parts."  The  teacher  should  write  all  these  facts  on  the 
board,  and  require  the  pupils  to  spell  the  words.  See 
that  the  children  begin  every  statement  with  a  capital 
letter  and  end  it  with  a  period. 

The  lesson  thus  far  developed  will  appear  on  the 
board  in  the  following  form  : 


344  OBJECT  LESSONS 

1.  Wood  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

2.  Coal  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

3.  Glass  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

4.  Brick  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

5.  Iron  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

6.  Cochineal  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

Pupils  should  be  required  to  copy  the  above  neatly, 
General  an(^  reproduce  it.  They  should  be  led  to 
principle.  perceive  that  all  objects  may  be  separated 
into  parts.  At  this  stage  ask  them  to  give  a  general 
name  to  all  things  that  they  can  perceive.  They  will 
give  the  names  :  things,  objects,  articles,  substance, 
matter, — perhaps  not  the  latter ;  if  they  do  not  give  the 
word  matter  the  teacher  should  give  it.  Tell  the  pupils 
that  "  matter  "  is  the  term  you  wish  them  to  use.  Now 
lead  them  to  perceive  that  "Matter  may  be  sepa- 
rated into  parts. "  Now  tell  them  that  this  properly 
is  called  by  a  certain  term,  Divisibility,  and  lead  them 
to  develop  the  definition  from  the  knowledge  already 
possessed.  For  example,  That  property  of  matter  which 
allows  it  to  be  separated  into  parts  is  Divisibility. 

The  lessons  will  now  appear  on  the  board  in  the  fol- 
lowing form  : 

1.  Wood  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

2.  Coal  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

3.  Glass  may  be  separated -into  parts. 

4.  Brick  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

5.  Iron  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

6.  Cochineal  may  be  separated  into  parts. 

7.  Musk  may  be  separated  into  parts,  etc. 

General  Law. — All  matter  may  be  separated  into  parts. 
Definition.—  Divisibility  is  that  property  of  matter  which  allows 
it  to  be  separated  into  parts. 


BOOKS    FOR    REFERENCE  345 

The  pupil  should  memorize  the  General  Law  and  the 
Definition.  The  teacher  may  give  extended  informa- 
tion in  relation  to  divisibility,  speaking  of  a  grain  of 
musk,  of  the  small  portions  it  throws  off,  and  of  various 
minerals. 


The  best  statement  of  the  advantages  of  such  teaching  is  found 
in  "How  to  Teach  Natural  Science  in  the  Public  Schools",  50 
cts.,  by  Dr.  Wm.  T.  Harris,  Commissioner  of  Education. 

McKay's  "100  Experiments  in  Natural  Science",  15  cts.,  is 
especially  intended  for  district  schools. 

Hooper's  " Object-Teaching,  or  Words  and  Things",  50  cts., 
treats  of  that  subject  from  the  most  intelligent  modern  stand- 
point, and  contains  a  model  lesson  on  "The  Duck"  which  has 
never  been  equalled  for  completeness  and  suggestiveness. 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT 


School  management  may  be  considered  under  three 
heads  :  I.  Organization  ;  II.  Government ;  III.  Conduct 
of  Eecitations. 

I.     ORGANIZATION 

School  organization  is  a  system  of  arrangement  de- 
pur  ose  of  signed  to  secure  constant  employment,  effi- 
organization.  cient  instruction,  and  moral  control.  It 
aims  at  providing  the  means  of  instructing  and  educat- 
ing the  greatest  number  in  the  most  efficient  manner, 
by  the  most  economical  expenditure  of  time  and  money. 

Organization  puts  each  child  in  its  proper  place ;  al- 
lots to  each  class  proper  work, — proper  in  kind  and 
amount ;  secures  to  each  subject  the  time  that  is  justly 
its  due  ;  arranges  the  work,  both  as  to  place  and  as  to 
kind,  so  as  to  preserve  a  quiet  room  ;  and  properly  dis- 
tributes the  work,  so  that  no  interest  of  the  school  in 
any  of  its  parts  shall  suffer. 

The  young  teacher  should  not  select  a  difficult  school 
choice  of  a^  ^rs^  ^°°  many  teach  for  the  money, 
a  school.  an(j  d0  not  consider  whether  or  not  they  are 
adapted  to  particular  schools. 

The  contract  should  be  in  writing,  and  express  defi- 
nitely the  conditions.  Both  parties  should 
have  a  copy.  Like  all  other  business,  this 
should  be  done  in  a  business-like  manner.  It  is  import- 
ant that  the  teacher  should  know  both  his  rights  and 
(346) 


HOW  TO  BEGItf  34? 

his  duties,  and  he  should  not  begin  school  without  a 
careful  reading  of  Bardeen's  "  Common  School  Law  for 
Common  School  Teachers  ". 

Preparation  for  the  first  day's  work  is  all  import- 
ant. The  seeds  of  failure  are  frequently 
sown  the  first  hour.  The  teacher  should  day- 
have  a  plan  in  his  mind  :  just  what  he  will  do  ;  hoio  he 
will  do  it ;  and  when  he  will  do  it.  He  should  not  try 
to  accomplish  too  much  the  first  day.  Let  him  not  be 
too  anxious  about  courting  the  favor  of  pupils — good 
discipline  cannot  be  established  in  a  day  ;  he  should  use 
words  expressive  of  friendly  feelings  and  good  intentions  ; 
he  should  not  let  frowns  cloud  the  brow,  although  all 
may  not  be,  at  the  outset,  just  as  one  might  wish ;  he 
should  leave  nothing  to  the  impulse  of  the  moment ;  he 
should  be  firm,  watchful,  and  uniform ;  he  should  en- 
deavor to  make  the  first  impression  pleasant. 

Do  not  attempt  to  hear  recitations  the  first  morning ; 
after  opening  the  school  with  a  general  ex-    p.^ 
ercise,   let  them  all  join  in   singing  some    exercises, 
familiar  piece  ;  this  will  dispel  embarrassment.     The  im- 
portance of  singing  in  school  as  an  aid  to  school  govern- 
ment, can  hardly  be  overestimated.  The  "Song  Budget", 
"The  Song  Century",  and  "The  Song  Patriot",  at  15 
cts.  each,  are  certainly  within  the  means  of  every  school. 

Write  on  the  board  the  requirements,  and  pass  slips 
of  paper,  asking  all  that  can  write  to  hand 

•      1 1      j.  n       •  •  Enrolment. 

in  the  following,  viz. : 

1.  The  full  name. 

2.  The  full  name  of  parent  or  guardian. 

3.  Residence. 

4.  Age. 

5.  His  studies  and  classes  for  the  term  before. 


348  SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION 

Let  some  pupils  pass  around  and  take  the  names,  etc., 
of  those  who  cannot  write. 

In  the  highest  classes  institute  a  written  examination. 
This  can  be  made  a  test  exercise  in  spelling, 

Classification.  mi6' 

penmanship,,  and  the  use  of  language.  The 
questions  need  not  be  difficult ;  ten  questions  upon 
the  different  subjects  will  test  the  knowledge  of  the  pu- 
pils as  well  as  twenty.  The  pupils  that  cannot  write 
should  be  examined  orally,  and  record  kept  of  the  stand- 
ing of  each  pupil.  It  is  not  best  to  make  sudden  and 
radical  changes  ;  better  adopt  the  classification  of  your 
predecessor,  if  you  have  not  confidence  in  your  own 
ability.  Be  especially  careful  not  to  find  fault  with  the 
methods  and  work  of  the  term  before.  Choose  points 
to  commend,  not  to  criticise. 

Make  all  changes  gradually  and  quietly,  and  let  the 
pupils  see  that  they  are  necessary  for  the  good  of  the 
school. 

After  having  graded  the  pupils,  attempt  a  tempor- 
Forminff  aiT  classification.  It  will  be  impossible  to 
classes.  classify  permanently  at  first,  and  the  pupils 

should  so  understand  it. 

There  should  be  not  more  than  four  grades  in  district 
schools.  The  primer  and  the  first  reader  should  be  the 
limit  of  the  D  grade  ;  the  second  reader,  of  the  C  grade  ; 
the  third  reader,  of  the  B  grade  ;  and  the  fourth  reader, 
of  the  A  grade.  The  number  of  classes  in  each  grade 
should  not  exceed  four,  and  by  class  classification  they 
need  not  exceed  this  number. 

The  teacher  is  now  ready  to  draw  up  the  plan  of  ivork, 


A   DAILY    PKOGKAMMB  349 

specifying  the   number  of  classes   and   the 

*    i        •  T  1    J.-U      i         j-i.      Programme. 

time  of  beginning,  ending,  and  the  length 
of  each  recitation. 

The  programme  should  provide  for  study  as  well  as 
for  recitation.  It  lessens  the  labor  of  teaching,  makes 
the  work  more  effective,  promotes  good  order,  cultivates 
systematic  habits,  and  promotes  the  ambition  of  pupils. 

While  it  is  well  to  follow  the  programme  carefully, 
the  organization  and  discipline  must  not  be  too  mechan- 
ical, or  pupils  will  tire  of  it.  No  change  in  classes 
should  be  made  for  visitors,  unless  by  special  request. 

Pupils  should  be  seated  according  to  classification,  so 
far  as  practicable,  and  graded  according  to  Movement 
height,  the  tallest  pupils  seated  in  the  rear,  of  classes. 
The  teacher  should  have  the  entire  charge  of  seating 
the  pupils,  and  should  change  seat-mates  when  advis- 
able. As  a  rule  it  is  not  best  to  place  pupils  of  the  same 
temperament  together,  and  seat-mates  should  understand 
that  if  they  are  disorderly  they  will  be  separated.  Class 
movements  should  be  conducted  with  precision,  and  no 
disorder  should  be  allowed  in  the  room.  In  no  instance 
should  the  school-room  be  used  as  a  play-ground;  nor 
should  pupils  be  allowed  to  deface,  destroy,  or  in  any 
way  injure  the  school  property. 

As  a  suggestion  to  teachers  who  do  not  find  a  pro- 
gramme of  work  already  adopted  in  school,  we  give  here 
the  Course  of  Study  adopted  for  country  schools  in  1894 
by  a  committee  of  School  Commissioners  of  the  State  of 
New  York,  and  approved  by  the  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction, 


350  SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION 

FIRST  YEAR 

Heading— Word  and  Phonic  method  combined.  Blackboard  work.  First 
Reader  begun. 

Writing— Much  written  work  on  tablet,  slate,  and  blackboard. 

Spelling— All  words  introduced. 

Language — See  Manual. 

Arithmetic—  First  Term— All  combinations  from  1  to  5  inclusive. 

Second  Term— Combinations  to  10.  Problems  involving  addition,  subtrac- 
tion, multiplication,  and  division. 

Drawing— Color,  form,  tracing. 

General  Lessons— Reverence  for  God.  Good  morals  and  manners.  Care  of 
the  person.  Simplest  elements  of  vocal  music. 

SECOND  YEAR— FIRST  TERM 

Reading— First  Reader  completed. 

Writing— Same  as  first  year. 

Spelling— Oral  and  written  spelling  of  all  words  introduced, 

Language— Writing  sentences  containing  given  words.  Filling  blanks. 
Use  of  capitals. 

Arithmetic— Combinations  to  15.  Reading  and  Writing  of  numbers  to  100. 
Fractions.— halves,  thirds,  and  fourths. 

Drawing— Color,  form,  ruling. 

General  Lessons— Inculcating  good  habits.  Throughout  all  grades  special 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics.  Oral 
instruction  on  the  parts  and  care  of  the  body.  Elements  of  vocal  music. 
Items  of  useful  knowledge. 

SECOND  TERM 

Reading— Second  Reader  begun. 

Writing— Same  as  first  year. 

Spelling— Same  as  first  term. 

Language— Same  as  first  term. 

Arithmetic  Combinations  to  25.  Reading  and  writing  of  numbers  to  1000. 
Addition  and  subtraction  tables  completed.  Fractions  to  and  including 
tenths.  Numerator  1.  Original  concrete  work. 

Drawing— First  term's  work  continued. 

General  Lessons — Same  as  first  term. 

THIRD  YEAR— FIRST  TERM 

Reading— Second  Reader  completed. 

Writing— Copy  book  No.  1. 

Spelling— All  words  in  various  lessons. 

Language— Use  of  such  words  as  is,  are,  was,  were,  have,  has.  Simple  let- 
ter writing.  Picture  lessons. 

Arithmetic— Multiplication  and  division  tables.  Fractions  to  tenths,  using 
1, 2,  and  3  as  numerators,  Easy  problems  in  mental  arithmetic. 


A   COURSE   OF   STUDY  351 

Geography— Location  and  direction  of  objects.  Drawing  familiar  surfaces 
to  a  scale.  Natural  features  of  school  district,— soil,  crops,  climate,  etc. 

Drawing — Color,  form,  measurements. 

General  Lessons— Functions  of  the  principal  organs  of  the  body,  and  the 
preservation  of  health.  Reading  very  easy  music.  Mineral,  vegetable,  and 
animal  substances.  Solids,  liquids,  and  gases. 

SECOND  TERM 

Beading— Supplementary  reading  of  Second  Reader  gfade. 

Writing— Copy  book  No.  1. 

Spelling— Same  as  first  term. 

Language— Reproduction  exercises.  Writing  sentences  containing  such 
words  as  this,  these,  that,  those,  seen,  saw,  did,  done,  got. 

Arithmetic— Addition,  subtraction,  and  multiplication.  Fractions— See 
Manual.  Concrete  work  with  analysis.  Mental  arithmetic. 

Geography— Town,  and  county  as  regards  surf  ace,*  places,  railroads,  lakes, 
rivers,  and  mountains. 

Drawing— First  term's  work  continued. 

General  I*esson$— First  term's  work  continued. 

FOURTH  YEAR— FIBST  TERM 

Heading— Third  Reader  begun  and  much  supplementary  reading. 

Writing— Copy  book  No.  2. 

Spelling— New  words  in  reading'and  other  lessons.    Spelling  book. 

Language— Letter  writing  and  descriptions  continued.  Such  words  as 
went,  gone,  lie,  lay,  lain,  sit,  set,  rise,  raise,  written  in  sentences. 

Arithmetic— Reading  and  writing  numbers  of  four  periods.  Roman  nota- 
tion to  100.  Division.  United  States  money.  Mental  arithmetic.  Third 
year's  work  in  fractions  continued. 

Geography— The  world  as  a  whole.  Illustrating  and  defining  the  natural 
divisions  of  land  and  water.  Description  and  location  of  the  principal 
divisions  on  both  continents. 

Drawing— Geometric,  decorative,  and  pictorial  drawing. 

General  Lessons— Previous  work  reviewed.  Lessons  on  food  and  drink. 
Biographical  sketches  of  noted  persons.  Choice  gems  of  literature  memor- 
ized and  recited.  Vocal  music.  Simple  experiments  in  natural  science. 

SECOND  TERM 

Reading— Third  Reader  completed  and  much  supplementary  reading. 

Writing— Copy  book  No.  2. 

Spelling— Same  as  preceding  term, 

Language— Preceding  term's  work  continued.    Common  abbreviations. 

'Arithmetic— Fractions,— See  Manual.  Problems  involving  all  principles! 
previously  taught.  Mental  arithmetic.  Roman  notation  to  1000.  Problems 
in  linear  measure. 

Geography— Prominent  features  and  boundaries  of  all  the  grand  divisions, 
Location  of  important  cities,  rivers,  and  mountains.  Map  drawing. 


352  SCHOOL   ORGANIZATION 

Drawing—  First  term's  work  continued. 

General  Lessons— Preceding  term's  work  continued.  Simple  lessons  on 
digestion. 

FIFTH  YEAR— FIRST  TERM 

Reading— Fourth  Reader  begun  and  much  supplementary  reading. 

Writing— Copy  book  No.  3. 

Spelling— Words  from  various  lessons  and  from  spelling  books. 

Language— Reproduction  of  stories  and  articles  read.  Letter  writing,  in 
eluding  invitations  and  orders  for  merchandise.  How  to  write  possessives. 

Arithmetic— Factors,  multiples,  and  divisors.  G.  C.  D.  and  L.  C.  M.  Re- 
duction, addition,  and  subtraction  of  fractions.  Simple  problems  in  avoir- 
dupois weight.  Easy  bills. 

Geography— A  general  account  of  the  grand  divisions  as  regards  soil,  cli- 
mate, productions,  animals,  commerce,  and  people. 

Drawing— Geometric,  decorative,  and  pictorial  work  continued. 

General  Lessons— Fourth  year's  work  continued.  Simple  lessons  on  the 
blood  and  respiration.  Vocal  music.  Rhetorical  training.  General  infor- 
mation. 

SECOND  TERM 

Reading— Fourth  Reader  continued  and  supplementary  reading.  Selec- 
tions from  classical  literature,  including  stories  from  American  history,  read 
in  school  and  at  home. 

Writing — Copy  book  No.  8. 

Spelling— Same  as  preceding  term. 

Language— Work  of  preceding  term  continued. 

Arithmetic— Common  fractions  completed.  Simple  problems  in  liquid  and 
dry  measure.  Problems  involving  all  principles  previously  taught. 

Geography — A  thorough  review  and  completion  of  elementary  geography. 

Drawing— First  term's  work  continued. 

General  lessons— First  term's  work  continued.  Easy  lessons  on  the  ner- 
TOUS  system  and  the  five  senses. 

SIXTH  YEAR— FIRST  TERM 

Heading— Fourth  Reader  completed.    Supplementary  reading. 

Writing— Copy  book  No.  4. 

Spelling— Spelling  book  and  important  words  in  various  lessons. 

Language— Writing  descriptions  of  things  seen,  heard,  or  read.  Analyses 
for  compositions. 

Arithmetic— Review  of  common  fractions.  Decimals.  Problems  invol- 
ving all  previous  work.  Mental  arithmetic. 

Geography— Mathematical  geography.  Divisions  of  North  America,  the* 
United  States  in  particular. 

Draw  ing— Fifth  year's  work  continued. 

Physiology— Review  of  work  given  in  connection  with  General  Lessons. 
The  skeleton,  muscle*,  and  skin. 


A   COUKSE   OF   STUDY  353 

General  Lessons— Selections  from  classical  literature.  Rhetorical  training. 
Vocal  music.  Illustrated  lessons  in  the  elementary  natural  sciences.  Gen- 
eral information.  Calisthenic  drill. 


SECOND 


Tl&M 


Beading— Brief  history  of  the  United  States.  Choice  selections  from 
standard  authors. 

Writing— Ca$7  book  No.  4. 

Spelling— From,  readers,  spelling  book  and  other  text-books  as  in  preceding 
terms. 

Language— Preceding  term's  work  continued. 

Arithmetic— Compound  numbers,— tables  and  reduction.  Problems  invol- 
ving all  previous  work. 

Geography— Review  of  county.  New  York  State,— boundaries  and  nat- 
ural features,  counties,  principal  railroad  systems,  cities  and  important 
towns,  minerals,  products,  manufactures,  government,  and  education. 

Drawing— Fifth  year's  work  continued. 

Physiology— Review  of  preceding  term's  work.    Digestion. 

General  Lessons— A.  continuation  of  previous  term's  work. 

SEVENTH  YEAR— FIRST  TERM 

Reading— Fifth  Reader,  or  selections  such  as  Rip  Van  Winkle,  Legend  of 
Sleepy  Hollow,  Snow  Bound,  The  Barefoot  Boy,  Black  Beauty,  Swiss  Fam- 
ily Robinson,  Evangeline,  Tom  Brown  at  Rugby,  Bitter  Sweet,  The  Deserted 
Village,  the  Chambered  Nautilus,  Biographies  of  Washington  and  Lincoln. 

Writing— Copy  book  No.  5. 

Spelling— Previous  work  continued.    Word  analysis. 

Grammar— Parts  of  speech  and  their  modifications,  except  case,  declen- 
sion, mode,  and  tense.  The  sentence,— subject,  predicate,  and  modifiers,— 
word,  phrase,  and  clause. 

Arithmetic— Compound  numbers  completed.  Problems  involving  all  pre- 
vious work. 

Geography— South  America,  Europe,  and  Asia. 

Drawing— Fifth  year's  work  continued. 

Physiology— Review  of  sixth  year's  work.  Circulation  and  respiration,  in- 
cluding voice. 

General  Lessons— A.  continuation  of  previous  lessons.  (See  sixth  year,  first 
term.)  Current  events. 

SECOND  TERM 

Beading— Continuation  of  preceding  term's  work  until  proficiency  is  at- 
tained. 

Writing— Copy  book  No.  6. 

Spelling — Continuation  of  previous  work. 

Grammar— Review  of  last  term's  work.  Case,  declensions,  simpler  rules 
of  syntax,  parsing,  conjugation  of  the  verb  to  be. 


354  SCHOOL   ORGANIZATION 

Arithmetic— Percentage,— insurance,  taxes,  commission,  profit  and  loss. 
Problems  involving  all  previous  work. 

Geography— Africa,  Oceanica,  standard  time,  and  general  review. 
Drawing— Fifth  year's  work  continued. 

Physiology— Nervous  system  and  special  senses.    General  review. 
Gene?'al  Lessons— A  continuation  of  previous  term's  work. 

EIGHTH  YEAR— FIRST  TERM 

Heading— Miscellaneous  reading.    One  or  two  recitations  a  week. 

Gramma?1— Review  of  previous  year's  work.  Conjugation  of  the  active 
voice.  Analysis  and  parsing. 

Arithmetic— Review  of  last  term's  work.  Simple  interest.  Partial  pay- 
ments,—United  States  rule  only.  Problems. 

Drawing— See  Manual. 

History— Discoveries  and  explorations ;  Colonial  period  to  1763. 

General  Lessons— See  sixth  year,  first  term.  Current  events.  Making  of 
simple  apparatus  and  other  useful  articles. 

SECOND  TERM 

Reading— Same  as  preceding  term. 

Grammar— Conjugation  completed.  Four  principal  parts  of  irregular 
verbs  learned.  Rules  of  syntax  completed. 

Arithmetic— Review  of  percentage.  Longitude  and  Tune.  True  and  bank 
discount.  Stocks. 

Drawing— See  Manual. 

History— First  term's  work  briefly  reviewed,  and  continued  to  the  close  of 
the  war  of  1812. 

General  Lessens— Same  as  preceding  term. 

NINTH  YEAR— FIRST  TERM 

Grammar— General  review.  Special  attention  given  to  subordinate 
clauses,  infinitives,  and  participles. 

Arithmetic— Bills,  ratio,  proportion,  partnership,  square  root,  domestic 
exchange,  mensuration. 

Drawing— See  Manual. 

History— American  History  completed.    History  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

Civil  Government— Some  elementary  work.  Special  attention  given  to 
the  constitutions  of  the  United  States  and  of  New  York. 

Geography— General  review  preparatory  to  final  examinations. 

Physiology— General  review  preparatory  to  final  examinations. 

General  Lessons— See  eighth  year,  first  term. 

SECOND  TERM 

During  this  term  let  pupils  pursue  those  studies  of  the  course  in  which 
they  have  not  yet  passed  the  final  examinations ;  and  if  they  are  capable  of 
doing  more  work  than  this,  they  should  take  up  some  or  all  of  the  following 
studies,— Algebra,  Physical  Geography,  Book-keeping. 


FIRMNESS   A   FIRST   REQUISITE  355 

II.     SCHOOL   GOVEBNMENT 

The  strength  or  weakness  of  a  teacher  is  no  where 
more  clearly  shown  than  in  the  government  of  the 
school. 

How  often  have  I  been  asked,  "  Tell  me  how  to  govern 
my  school."  The  subject  is  the  most  impor-  Difficulty  of 
tant  that  can  engage  the  attention  of  teach-  government, 
ers.  It  is  one  that  calls  for  experience,  judgment,  and 
wisdom.  Every  pupil  has  a  conscience,  that  decides 
on  all  actions  contemplated  or  begun — decides  whether 
the  act  is  right  or  wrong.  The  fundamental  rule  is, 
"Do  nothing  that  your  conscience  tells  you  is  wrong." 
This  covers  the  whole  ground,  and  a  score  of  rules  will 
only  weaken  it.  Some  consciences  are  depraved,  but 
few  are  seared. 

For  the  maintenance  of  a  healthy  discipline,  it  is  not 
necessary  that  there  should  be  great  severity  in  the 
punishment  of  offences. 

Firmness  is  the  first  requisite  to  school  government ; 
the  pupils  must  understand  that  the  teacher 
has  absolute  control,  that  his  authority  is 
supreme  ;  and  this  in  most  cases  is  sufficient  in  itself  to 
hold  the  evil  propensities  of  pupils  in  check. 

On  the  contrary,  a  lack  of  firmness  will  encourage  the 
spirit  of  revolt,  and  make  necessary  frequent  resorts  to 
punishment  of  one  kind  or  another. 

School  government  should  be  administered  in  such  a 
way  that  it  shall  be  a  reign  of  justice.  The 

J         .....  •     xi  j-     Justice. 

sense  of  justice  is  strong  even  in  the  case  of 

vicious  children.     Offences  will  occur  in  the  best  con- 


356  SCHOOL   GOVEKIOIENT 

ducted  schools,  but  the  teacher  must  discriminate  be- 
tween trivial,  aggravated,  and  flagrant  offences. 

Children  know  that  disobedience  and  wrong-doing 
in  general  deserve  punishment ;  and  providing  the  de- 
gree of  punishment  does  not  exceed  its  just  bounds,  no 
feeling  of  resentment  will  be  cherished  toward  him  who 
inflicts  the  penalty. 

A  teacher  should  not,  generally,  make  a  rule  until 
DO  not  antici-  there  ig  necessity  for  it.  It  should  then  be 
pate  offences,  enforced,  and  for  a  violation  of  the  rule  a 
penalty  should  be  inflicted.  Children  soon  learn  to  feel 
contempt  for  a  teacher  who  does  not  insist  on  respect- 
ful obedience ;  they  instinctively  admire  the  firmness 
and  decision  which  mete  out  to  offenders  their  deserved 
punishment.  Complete  success  in  school  management 
at  the  outset  is  not  to  be  expected  ;  only  by  slow  degrees 
can  dexterity  in  government  be  attained.  Common 
sense  is  an  important  element  in  management.  A  noble 
Quaker  once  said  :  "  There  are  three  things  a  man  needs 
to  make  him  successful ;  first,  good  health  ;  second,  re- 
ligion ;  and  third,  good  sense  :  if  he  can  have  but  one  of 
these,  let  it  be  good  sense  ;  for  God  can  give  him  grace, 
and  God  can  give  him  religion,  but  common  sense 
must  be  born  in  him." 

«     But   very   few   special   privileges   should   at  first  be 
granted   to   pupils,    such  as  leaving  seats, 

Privileges.  ,  .  '  ,  .  ° .  ' 

speaking  to  one  another,  asking  questions  of 
teachers,  making  complaint  to  teachers,  receiving  help 
from  teachers,  etc.  After  the  school  is  thoroughly 
organized  the  teacher  may  gradually  extend  these  privi- 
leges, as  he  finds  it  convenient  and  safe,  but  at  first 
they  are  troublesome. 


A   CHEERFUL   SCHOOL  357 

The  teacher  should  be  careful  not  to  disgust  pupils 
with  learning.  Frequently  revengeful  feel- 

..     -.  ,  .    .  ,  .,  ,  Learning 

ings  are  excited  by  requiring  children  to  re-    should  be  a 

main  after  school  hours  and  commit  lines  of 

poetry  to  memory,  or  to  work  long  arithmetic  problems. 

Teachers  are  sometimes  at  fault  for  unlearned  lessons 
on  the  part  of  pupils,  because  they  have  not  told  the 
children  what  to  do  or  how  to  do  it.  If  the  young  un- 
derstand the  nature  and  object  of  their  work,  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  should  be  prosecuted,  they  will  find 
a  pleasure  in  endeavoring  to  surmount  every  apparent 
difficulty.  The  work  should  be  represented  both  as  a 
duty  and  as  a  pleasure. 

A  smile  from  the  teacher  lightens  the  labor  of  the 
school,  and  lessens  the  burdens  of  the  day.    A  cheerful 
School  rooms  should  be  spacious,  light  and    sch°o1- 
airy, — well  ventilated,  comfortably  heated  during  winter, 
and  erected  in  delightful  and  commanding  situations. 
The  walls  should  be  adorned  with  pictures,  mottoes, 
vines,  and  ornaments. 

The  school-room  should  be  made  homelike  as  possible, 
as  inviting  as  public  halls.  Teachers  should  frequently 
exhibit  amusing  and  instructive  experiments,  and  ask 
the  children  to  assist  them.  The  children  should  be 
gratified  occasionally  with  excursions  into  interesting 
parts  of  the  country,  to  view  the  works  of  nature  and 
thus  increase  their  love  of  the  beautiful.  Scholastic 
exercises  should  carry  delightful  associations. 

The  principle  of  emulation  should  be  made  subordi- 
nate.    In  an  intellectual  point  of  view  emu-  Do  not  rely 
lation  may  be  satisfactory  to  the  few  that  on  emulation, 
excel ;  satisfactory  to  the  parents  and  guardians,  who 


358  SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT 

are  led  to  form  false  estimates  of  their  progress  and 
acquirements  by  the  places  they  occupy  in  their  respect- 
ive classes  ;  but  it  often  produces  an  injurious  effect  on 
the  moral  temperament  of  the  successful,  and  of  their 
companions  whom  they  excel. 

One  grand  end  of  instruction,  which  has  been  too 
much  overlooked,  is  to  cultivate  and  regulate  the  moral 
powers — to  produce  love,  affection,  concord,  humility, 
self-denial,  and  other  moral  graces.  But  the  principle 
of  emulation  has  a  tendency  to  produce  jealousy,  envy, 
hatred,  and  other  malignant  passions.  Besides  it  is 
only  a  very  few  in  every  class  that  can  be  stimulated  to 
exertion  by  this  principle,  and  these  few  are  generally  of 
such  a  temperament  as  to  require  their  ambitious  dis- 
position to  be  restrained  rather  than  excited.  A  ma- 
terial prize  is  the  least  effectual  mode  of  accomplishing 
the  desired  object ;  it  is  founded  on  injustice,  inasmuch 
as  it  heaps  honors  and  emoluments  on  those  to  whom 
nature  has  already  been  most  bountiful. 

In  the  curiosity  of  children  there  is  sufficient  and 
natural  stimulant  of  the  appetite  for  knowledge,  and  we 
live  in  a  world  abounding  in  the  means  of  useful  and 
pleasurable  gratifications. 

All  that  is  required  of  teachers  is  to  aid  the  faculties 
with  affection  and  judgment.  A  certificate  of  diligence 
and  good  conduct  seems  to  be  all  that  is  necessary  to 
distinguish  from  the  vicious,  the  idle,  the  slothful, 
those  who  have  employed  their  time  and  talents  in  a 
proper  manner. 

Corporal  punishment,  as  it  is  generally  administered, 
Avoid  *s  rev°lting  and  degrading  in  its  character, 

whipping.  an(}  the  necessity  of  resorting  to  it  generally 


CORPORAL  PUNISHMEHt  359 

indicates  that  there  has  been  a  want  of  proper  training 
in  the  earlier  stages  of  life.  It  is  vain  to  imagine  that 
children  can  be  whipped  into  either  learning  or  good 
conduct ;  and  if  an  enlightened  and  judicious  mode  of 
tuition  were  universally  adopted  there  would  seldom  be 
any  necessity  for  resorting  to  such  a  stimulus.  But  in 
the  modes  of  teaching  which  used  to  prevail,  corporal 
punishment  was  inevitable,  and  in  some  instances  it 
seems  still  necessary.  When  other  means  of  correction 
have  failed  and  it  becomes  a  choice  between  whipping 
and  expulsion,  whipping  is  almost  always  to  be  pre- 
ferred. But  let  the  teacher  be  sure  that  it  is  necessary, 
and  that  he  does  not  inflict  it  to  gratify  an  angry  feel- 
ing of  his  own. 

Plato  said,  "  A  teacher  should  never  punish  in  anger." 
When  reproofs  are  uttered  in  passion,  and  wi£h  looks  of 
fury,  they  seldom  or  never  produce  any  good  effect,  and 
not  unfrequently  excite  a  spirit  of  revenge  against  the 
reprover. 

A  blacksmith  brought  up  his  son,  to  whom  he  was 
very  severe,  to  his  own  trade.  The  urchin  was  never- 
theless an  audacious  dog.  One  day  the  old  vulcan  was 
attempting  to  harden  a  cold  chisel  which  he  had  made 
of  foreign  steel,  but  could  not  succeed.  "  Horse- whip 
it,  father,"  exclaimed  the  youth,  "  if  that  will  not  harden 
it,  nothing  will." 

A  school  ought  never  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  prison. 
Classes  too  young  to  prepare  lessons  them-  Make  gchool 
selves,  should  be  provided  with  "busy  work  "  hours  short- 
of  various  kinds.  In  mild  weather  they  should  have 
frequent  recesses,  and  they  should  always  be  dismissed 
earlier  than  the  older  classes. 


360  SCHOOL   GOVERHMEHT 

The  school  should  always  be  not  "my "school  but 
"  our  "  school,  and  teacher  and  pupils  should  work  to- 
gether to  make  it  excel. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  to  investigate,  to  study,  to 
insist  on  think,  to  notice  every  object  within  the 
attention.  reach  of  their  vision,  and  to  give  an  account 
of  what  they  have  seen  or  heard. 

This  will  induce  a  habit  of  attention,  without  which 
there  can  be  no  solid  improvement  in  any  department 
of  instruction.  The  teacher  should  not  proceed  with 
the  exercises  of  the  school  until  he  has  the  undivided 
attention  of  every  pupil. 

We  would  commend  to  every  teacher  Fitch's  little 
manual  "How  to  Secure  and  Retain  the  Attention  of 
Pupils",  and  Hughes's  larger  work  of  similar  name. 

Too  much  government  may  prove  as  injurious  as  too 
Over-gov-  l^tle  ;  both  may  prove  failures.  The  teacher 
erning.  should  govern  as  little  and  teach  as  much  as 

possible.  In  some  schools  there  is  more  of  govern- 
ment than  of  teaching.  The  pupils  should  understand 
that  in  no  instance  will  the  teacher  stop  the  recita- 
tion to  manage  a  school  or  discipline  a  pupil.  If 
the  teacher  observes  that  a  pupil  is  disorderly  during 
recitation,  he  should  silently  mark  him,  and  attend  to 
the  offence  during  recess  or  at  some  convenient  oppor- 
tunity. 

All  discipline  has  its  spring  in  the  character  of  the 
teacher.  It  depends  more  on  the  man  than  on  his 
means.  It  is  character  that  imparts  efficacy  to  action. 

Character  is  the  source  of  success  or  failure  in  all 
character  of  Pursuits.  So  apparent  is  its  influence  in 
the  teacher,  schools  that  one  who  had  many  opportuni- 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  TEACHER         361 

ties  for  observing  has  said  that,  "  A  teacher  has  more 
need  to  watch  himself  than  his  children,  as  the  evils 
found  in  a  school  are  often  traceable  to  some  omission, 
inconsiderateness,  hastiness  of  temper,  want  of  firmness, 
or  absence  of  principle  in  himself ." 

The  school  becomes  a  reflector  of  the  teacher,  and  in 
every  case  it  will  be  an  accurate  reflector.  A  teacher 
cannot  appear  what  he  is  not  in  the  presence  of  his 
pupils.  The  attempt  is  vain.  Their  eyes  pierce  through 
every  disguise. 

He  must  be  what  he  seems,  and  must  seem  what  he  is. 

Love,   honor,    truthfulness,    sincerity,    consistency, 
justice,  patience,  and  judgment,  must  be  ele- 
ments of  a  teacher's  character.     Earnestness    of  the  true 
and  cheerfulness  are  also  elements.     Earn- 
estness has  great  influence  over  children ;  cheerfulness 
is  sunshine. 

Sympathy  with  them  in  their  trials,  sports  and  labors 
is  an  element  of  power ;  but  fear  KEVER. 

Is  there  not  a  lesson  prettily  expressed  in  the  follow- 
ing : 

He  who  checks  a  child  with  terror, 
Stops  its  play,  and  stills  its  song, 

Not  alone  commits  an  error, 
But  a  great  and  moral  wrong. 

Give  it  play,  and  never  fear  it, — 

Active  life  is  no  defect ; 
Never,  never  break  its  spirit, — 

Curb  it  only  to  direct. 

Would  you  stop  the  flowing  river, 
Thinking  it  would  cease  to  flow  ? 

Onward  it  must  flow  forever, — 
Better  teach  it  where  to  go. 


362  SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT 

Particularly   must  it  be  kept  in  view  by  the  teacher 
that  quietness  in  governing   is   allied  with 

A  low  voice.  ,,..,.  .,       , 

good  discipline.  A  loud  voice,  reiterating 
commands  in  an  authoritative  tone,  is  often  considered 
favorable  to  discipline.  It  is  not  really  so.  A  quiet 
way  of  issuing  orders  is  favorable  to  quietness  of  dis- 
position among  the  pupils.  It  conveys  a  double  impres- 
sion— that  obedience  is  expected,  and  that  there  is  a 
large  reserve  force  at  command  if  the  teacher  should 
have  occasion  to  use  it. 

One  thing  deserving  careful  consideration  is  the  im- 
obedience  portance  of  inculcating  the  habit  of  obedi- 
from  the  first.  ence  from  the  first.  If  children  are  accus- 
tomed from  their  very  earliest  school  experience  to  move 
together  in  accordance  with  the  fixed  signals,  the  work 
of  discipline  is  greatly  simplified.  Simultaneous  move- 
ments— as  in  rising,  taking  seats  again,  or  marching — . 
always  contribute  to  the  result  in  a  very  pleasing  way. 
We  would  encourage  daily  drill  in  Calisthenics,  as  well 
calculated  to  enforce  prompt  obedience. 

The  first  thing  that  a  child  should  learn  is  obedience. 
All  governments  and  all  peoples  have  regarded  filial  dis- 
obedience with  great  disfavor.  The  teacher  should 
supplement  the  parent's  work. 

HINTS   ON  THE   CORRECTION  OF  SPECIAL  OFFENCES 
/.     ^Communication 

1.  By  suggestion,  advice,  admonition. 

2.  By  reproof, — make  it  unpopular. 

3.  By  restraint  of  personal  liberties. 

4.  By  separation  of  seatmates. 

5.  By  printed  reports  to  parents. 


SPECIAL   OFFEKCES  363 

//.     Loud  Study 

1.  Suspend  exercises  until  quiet. 

2.  Train  pupils  to  study  with  closed  lips. 

///.     Laughing 

1.  By  suspension  of  exercises. 

2.  Make  pupils  laugh  until  weary  of  it. 

IV.     Moving  Noisily 

1.  Train  the  pupils  how  to  walk,  to  stand,  to  sit,  and 
to  move. 

2.  Always  admonish  them,  when  a  command  is  vio- 
lated. 

3.  Require  the  pupils  to  try  again,  until  they  do  it 
quietly. 

4.  Slates  should  be  covered. 

5.  Let  the  teacher  move  quietly  himself. 

V.     Questions  During  Recitation 

1.  Prohibit  them. 

2.  Show  their  impropriety. 

3.  Refuse  to  notice  signals. 

VI.     Litter  on  the  Floor 

1.  Encourage  neatness. 

2.  Require  the  floor  to  be  swept. 

3.  Inspect  the  floor  in   the   presence  of  the   pupil, 
without  any  remarks. 

VII.      Writing  Notes 

1.  Give  pupils  all  the  work  they  can  do. 

2.  Read  the  notes  before  the  school,  omitting  names. 

3.  Ask  for  the  writer. 

4.  Destroy  the  notes  without  reading  them. 


364  SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT 

VIII.      Undeanliness 

1.  Have  basin  and  towels  at  hand,  for  washing. 

2.  Send  pupils  home  till  they  are  fit  to  return. 

3.  Insist  upon  cleanliness. 

IX.     Disorder 

1.  Have  a  place  for  everything,  and  everything  in  its 
place. 

2.  Allow  no  changing  of  position,  without  permission. 

3.  Hold  pupils  accountable  for  the  care  of  property. 

4.  Insist  on  quiet  attention  when  addressing  pupils. 

X.     Tattling 

1.  Point  out  its  impropriety  —  it  leads  to  gossip  and 
slander. 

2.  Eefuse  to  notice  it. 

XI.     Quarrelling 

1.  Persuade  of  its  sinfulness. 

2.  Oblige  pupils  to  play  alone. 

3.  Make  it  unpopular  by  ridiculing  those  who  engage 
in  it. 

XII.     Untruthfulness 
1.  Ignorance. 

i. 


4.  Innate  tendency. 

{1.  Loss  of  reputation. 

2.  Loss  of  character. 

3.  Loss  of  conscience. 

4.  General  demoralization. 

3.  Cultivate  honor. 


THE   FINAL   TEST   OF  THE   TEACHER  365 

III.     CONDUCT  OF  RECITATIONS 

As  it  is  considered  more  important  to  digest  what  is 
learned  than  merely  to  acquire  it,  the  man-  Testof 
ner  of  conducting  a  recitation  becomes  of  the  teacher- 
the  highest  importance.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  the 
pupils  carry  away  with  them  the  habits  of  mind  that 
the  class  training  engenders.  The  ability  of  the  teacher 
to  make  each  recitation  a  model  of  the  best  method  of 
investigating  a  subject  and  of  expressing  the  results,  is 
the  highest  recommendation  for  the  position  he  holds. 

Discipline  is  only  a  means,  whereas  the  recitation  is 
an  end.  A  failure  here  is  a  failure  altogether.  It  has 
definite  and  rational  aims,  to  be  carefully  sought  after 
and  earnestly  pursued.  It  is  the  most  delicate  part  of 
all  the  school  work.  Here  the  teacher  may  exhibit 
skill,  tact,  and  individuality ;  the  inventive  powers  are 
to  be  taxed  to  their  utmost,  in  order  to  bring  about  the 
desired  results. 

The  object  is  to  develop  the  powers  of  the  pupils,  and 
this  development  will  be  attained  in  propor- 

,.  ,,  r    ,  .,.,  .,  ,    .  .,        Object. 

tion  to  the  ability,  capacity,  and  ingenuity 
of  the  teacher. 

The  conditions  of  success  in  school  work  are  as  fixed 
as  the  axioms  of  mathematics.  Intense  in-  Con(jition8  of 
terest,  activity,  self-reliance,  well-directed  success- 
effort — these  are  the  essential  features  of  all  efficient 
methods.  Any  method  of  conducting  recitations  that 
embraces  these  is  a  good  one.  Different  teachers  do  not 
always  succeed  best  with  the  same  method. 

Adaptation  and  variety  are  cardinal  principles  in  edu- 
cation. The  safe  rule  is  :  Employ  the  method  ivhich 
will  best  enable  you  to  effect  the  desired  results. 


366  CONDUCT  OF  RECITATIONS 

GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS 
/.     Essentials 

1.  A  brief  reproduction  of  the  preceding  lesson. 

2.  A  brief  review  of  the  preceding  lesson. 

3.  Kehearsal  and  critical  examination  of  the  daily 
lesson. 

4.  Eecapitnlation  of  the  daily  lesson. 

5.  Adequate  preparation  for  the  advanced  lesson. 

//.     Objects 

1.  The  development  of  the  faculties. 

2.  The  acquisition  of  knowledge. 

3.  Its  application  to  the  use  of  life. 

///.     Ends 

1.  To  develop  individuality. 

2.  To  encourage  originality. 

3.  To  cultivate  self-reliance  and  self-possession. 

4.  To  cultivate  sentiments  of  justice,  kindness,  for- 
bearance, and  courtesy. 

5.  To  nurture  the  development  and  the  growth  of  the 
pupils,  physically,  intellectually,  and  morally,  and  to 
prepare  them  for  life's  service. 

IV.     Hints 

1.  Teach  "  one  thing  at  a  time,  and  that  well." 

2.  Fix  and  hold  the  attention. 

3.  Develop  the  power  of  close  observation. 

4.  Cultivate  exact,  concise,  and  ready  expression. 

5.  Aim  to  increase  the  attainments  of  the  class. 

6.  Determine  the   pupil's    habits   and   methods    of 
study,  and  correct  whatever  is  faulty  in  either  manner 
or  matter. 


GENERAL   SUGGESTIONS  367 

7.  Ascertain  the  extent  of  preparation  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil. 

8.  Encourage.     This  is  important  to  prevent  apostacy 
— "  back-sliding  ". 

9.  Give  preliminary  drill  on  subsequent  lessons,  show- 
ing what  is  to  be  done  and  liow  it  is  to  be  done.     This 
needs  special  attention. 

10.  Hear  reports   on  subjects  assigned  at  previous 
recitations. 

11.  Eequire   pupils  to  answer  in  full  and  complete 
statements. 

12.  Permit  no  pupil  to  speak  until  recognized  by  the 
teacher — the  chairman  of  the  meeting. 

13.  Eequire  the  pupil  to  rise  when   called  upon   to 
recite. 

14.  Do  not  yourself   recite,    or    repeat  the   pupil's 
answer. 

15.  Let  system,  neatness,  and  accuracy  characterize 
all  work. 

16.  Be  ready  with  criticism,  but  always  give  it  in  the 
spirit  of  kindness. 

17.  Stop  the  recitation  when  there  is  any  confusion 
in  the  room. 

18.  Aim  to  reach  general  principles. 

19.  Kemember  that  in  primary  work  the  "how "al- 
ways precedes  the  "why  ". 

20.  Master  subjects  rather  than  pages. 

21.  Remember  that  mind-training  is  more  important 
than  mere  knowledge. 

22.  Avoid  wandering ;  keep  the  object  of  the,  lesson 
before  you. 


368  CONDUCT   OF   RECITATIONS 

23.  Avoid  leaning  in  -slavish   dependence  upon  the 
text-book. 

24.  Use  judgment  in  the  assignment  of  lessons. 

25.  Propound  lessons  promiscuously. 

26.  State  the  question — then  call  upon  the  pupil. 

27.  When  the  pupil  is  called  upon  to  recite,  permit 
no  interruptions,  as  speaking  without  permission,  hold- 
ing up  hands,  etc. 

28.  Cultivate  honesty  in  every  recitation. 

29.  Never  "show  off  "  pet  classes  or  pet  pupils. 

30.  Do  not  talk  too  much  about  order. 

31.  Cultivate  language  in  the  pupils  ;  let  every  exer- 
cise bear  upon  the  correct  use  of  language. 

32.  Close  recitations  promptly. 

33.  Dismiss  the  class,  in  order. 

34.  Be  cheerful,  active  and  energetic. 

35.  Thoroughly  master  your  subjects. 

36.  "Make  haste  slowly. " 

37.  Do  not  yourself  remove  difficulties,  but  teach  pu- 
pils to  overcome9  to  master  them ;  in  all  instruction 
"never  remove  a  difficulty  which  the  pupil  has  the 
power  to  remove. " 

38.  Allow  no  questions  foreign  to  the  recitation. 

39.  Allow  no  hesitation  during  recitation. 

40.  Give  entire  time  and  attention  to  the  recitation. 

41.  Require  expertness  in  mechanical  operations. 

42.  Comprehend  the  difference  between  memory  of 
words  and  knowledge. 

43.  Comprehend  the  difference  between  "hearing  a 
recitation",  and  teaching. 

44.  Always  prepare  your  class  in  advance  of  the  lesson 
for  any  difficulty  which  may  meet  them.     You  may  ex- 


GENERAL   SUGGESTIONS 

plain  the  difficulty  orally  ;  you  may  solve  an  example,  not 
in  the  book,  which  shall  meet  the  difficulty ;  you  may 
give  the  class  a  preliminary  drill  on  the  rule,  or  on  a. 
series  of  more  difficult  examples  under  any  rule,  or  in 
miscellaneous  examples  under  a  number  of  rules.  Such 
preparation,  judiciously  given,  is  calculated  to  keep  up 
the  ambition  of  all  the  c]ass,  by  removing  all  excuses 
for  laziness  and  discouragement. 

45.  Eemember  that  true  education  is  the  forming  for 
life  of  correct  habits  of  thinking,  feeling,  and  doing. 

V.     Requisites 

1.  An  energetic,  intelligent  teacher. 

2.  Comfortable  recitation  seats. 

3.  An  abundance  of  blackboard. 

4.  Apparatus, — such  as  globes,  charts,  maps,  numeral 
frames,  measures,  etc. 

5.  Eeference  books. 

6.  Call-bell. 

7.  Proper  ventilation. 

8.  Equal  temperature. 

VI.     Preparation  ly  the  Teacher 

1.  A  knowledge  of  the  subject  and  of  the  pupils. 

2.  General  preparation,  as  special  as  possible. 

3.  A  programme  for  each  day's  work. 

4.  Knowledge  how  to  "  use  "  books  without  abusing- 
them. 

No  permanent  results  can  be   attained  in   teaching 
without  thorough,   careful  and  repeated  re-    Reproduc. 
production  of  lessons.  tion- 

After   a  lesson  has  been   given,  and   recited  by  the 
pupils  in  the  subsequent  recitation,  they  should  be  re- 


370  CONDUCT   OF   RECITATIONS 

quired  to  restate  what  they  learned  in  the  preceding 
lesson,  using  good  language  and  distinct  and  definite 
propositions.  Xo  questions  should  be  asked  by  the 
teacher — and  if  the  work  has  been  done  as  it  should  be 
in  the  preceding  exercise,  there  will  be  no  need  of  any. 

In  primary  classes  require  oral  reproduction  ;  in  inter- 
mediate and  senior  classes,  written  reproduction. 

In  the  review  the  teacher  asks  questions  of  the  pupils, 

direct  and  general ;  pupils  are  required  to 

construct  tabulations.     It  is  well  to  let  the 

pupils  ask  questions  of  each  other — this  will  inspire  the 

pupils  with  a  desire  for  study,  and  make  them  ready, 

prompt,  and  self-reliant. 

The  teacher  should  institute  weekly  reviews,  both  oral 
and  written. 

Kehearsal  is  perhaps  the  most  delicate  part  of  the  reci- 
tation. So  to  conduct  it  that  pupils  may  pass 

Rehearsal.  ,,  ...  •  i  -n     •     -i 

a  thorough  examination  requires  skill,  judg- 
ment, and  experience. 

The  teacher  is  not  expected  to  render  assistance  in 
this  division  of  the  recitation ;  the  pupils  must  do  the 
work,  and  give  clear  proof  of  their  comprehension  of 
the  lesson.  If  they  cannot  do  it,  the  teacher  is  in 
fault,  and  not  the  pupils. 

During  this  part  of  the  recitation,  the  teacher  should 
not  take  the  time  "  to  recite ";  it  is  the  pupils'  time. 
He  is  a  very  poor  teacher  who  will  do  the  work  that 
should  be  done  by  the  pupil. 

Before  the  class  is  excused,  let  them  give  the  leading, 
salient  points  of  the  lesson — a  summary — a 
digest  of  the  whole. 


GENERAL   SUGGESTIONS  371 

A  great  deal  of  time  is  lost  in  the  school,  because 

pupils  do  not  knOW   What  to    do  Or  how  to  do       Preliminary 

it.     In  all  primary  classes  oral  instruction     drilL 
should  precede  pure  recitation.     In  fact,  in  all  classes, 
where  it  is  necessary,  oral  instruction  should  be  given. 
The  main  object  of  an  education  is  to  teach  a  child  self- 
control — physical,    intellectual,  and   moral. 

f      •,  ,      ,,  11  •  Harmonious 

This  can  be  done  only  through  a  harmonious     deveiop- 
development  of  all  his  powers. 

Pupils  should  be  so  taught  in  school  that  they  may 
have  a  desire  to  pursue  other  studies,  and  may  be  able 
to  acquire  knowledge  by  observation,  investigation,  and 
study.  The  knowledge  imparted  should  be  applied,  as 
far  as  may  be,  to  practice. 

In  recitations,  the  expression  of  the  thoughts  which 
the  pupil  has  acquired  by  study  should  be    Howfar 
embodied  in  his  own  language.  verbatim. 

If  the  lesson  contains  captions,  mathematical  defini- 
tions, principles  or  tables,  or  fixed  rules,  they  should  be 
accurately  recited  in  the  words  of  the  author.  But  they 
must  first  be  thoroughly  understood.  The  mind  should 
be  the  depository  of  thoughts,  and  not  of  mere  words 
and  signs. 

In  the  class-recitation  the  pupil  should  be  required 
to  stand  erect  while  reciting.  This  will  give  stand  while 
him  confidence  and  self-reliance.  reciting. 

It  should  not  be  known  beforehand  what  order  will 
be  pursued  in  conducting  the  recitation.     If    Fixed  order 
called  on  consecutively,  some  will  be  inatten-    in  recitmg- 
tive  ;  if  called  on  promiscuously,  the  idle  and  inattentive 
will  be  called  more  frequently. 


372  CONDUCT   OF   RECITATIONS 

Every  teacher  must  see  to  it  that  each  pupil  is  so 
Adaptation  to  classified  as  to  be  required  to  perform  a  full 
each  pupil.  amount  of  mental  labor.  "  Each  mind  must 
be  taxed. "  It  is  the  wise  teacher  who  is  able  to  adapt 
his  treatment  and  instruction  to  the  wants  of  each 
and  all. 

Teachers  are  quite  apt  to  call  out  the  bright,  intelli- 
DO  not  slight  Sen^  pupils  in  the  recitation,  but  they  should 
the  dull.  remember  that  mere  scholarship  does  not 
make  the  man,  and  not  slight  those  who  are  dull,  slow  to 
understand.  It  is  not  brightness  that  wins  in  life's  long 
race  ;  it  is  faithfulness/  perseverance,  persistence. 

These  qualities  gave  success  to  Nathaniel  Bowditch, 
the  mathematician ;  Benjamin  Franklin,  the  philoso- 
pher ;  George  Peabody,  the  philanthropist ;  and  Abra- 
ham Lincoln,  the  statesman. 

I  would  not  intimate  that  scholarly  ability  is  not  de- 
sirable, but  it  is  not  the  only  test.  Long  and  unwearied 
toil  is  the  price  of  merit.  The  highest  honors  of  pro- 
fessional life  are  reached,  not  by  genius,  but  by  labor. 

Strive  to  make  the  recitation  attractive  and  interest- 
ing. This  requires  thought  and  professional 
tions  inter-  skill.  The  teacher  should  study  each  lesson 
before  meeting  the  class,  not  merely  to  en- 
able him  to  understand  what  he  teaches,  but  to  be  able 
so  to  conduct  the  recitation  that  he  will  awaken  and 
keep  alive  the  interest  of  his  pupils.  The  grand  test  of 
the  teacher's  ability  and  the  secret  of  his  success  is 
found  in  his  power  to  inspire  his  pupils  with  earnest- 
ness and  enthusiasm.  To  wake  up  mind,  is  his  first  and 
most  important  duty.  A  true  teacher  is  alive  and  in 
earnest ;  his  heart  throbs  with  tenderness  and  emotion  ; 


A    LIFELESS    SCHOOL  373 

his  blood  flows  freely  through  his  veins,  and  imparts 
cheerfulness  and  vigor  to  his  being.  Enthusiasm  speaks 
out  in  his  voice,  glows  in  his  countenance,  and  flashes 
from  his  eye.  We  need  in  active  service  more  of  these 
live  teachers  ;  teachers  that  can  bring  order  out  of  con- 
fusion, light  out  of  darkness,  and  awake  to  activity  the 
slumbering  powers  of  the  intellect. 

When  superintendent  of  schools  in  St.  Louis,  Wm.T. 
Harris,  LL.  D.,  now  commissioner  of  educa-    causes  of 
tion,   said   that  listnessness  in  the   school-    Hstiessness. 
room  might  be  traced  to  : 

1.  Lack  of  proper  ventilation. 

2.  Lack  of  equal  temperature. 

3.  Too  long  recitations  for  the  strength  of  the  pupils. 

4.  Injudicious  and  too  frequent  concert  recitations. 

5.  The  practice  of  "keeping  in"  pupils  at  recess  or 
after  school  for  failure  in  lessons  or  misbehavior. 

6.  Lack  of  definite  analysis  of  the  subject  of  the  les- 
son by  the  teacher  during  recitation. 

7.  Substitution  of  individual  explanation  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  for  correction  (in  the  class)  of  bad  habits 
of  study. 

On  entering  the  room  of  a  careless  or  inexperienced 
teacher,   the  visitor  is  struck  by  the  life-    Anfeiess 
less  atmosphere  that  seems  to  pervade  both    sch°o1- 
teacher  and  pupils.     The  pupils  all  turn  their  gaze  upon 
him  as  he  enters,  and  stare  abstractedly,  forgetful  of  the 
presence  of  the  teacher  and  of  the  purpose  of  their  at- 
tendance at  school.     The  teacher  languidly,  or  with  a 
slight  flush  of  surprise  and  embarrassment,  invites  him 
to  a  seat.     After  a  little,  the  pupils  settle  back  into  the 
condition  prevailing  before  the  entrance  of  the  visitor. 


374  CONDUCT    OF   RECITATIONS 

The  pupils  at  their  seats  are  variously  employed  ;  many 
are  leaning  over  their  de,sks,  their  faces  full  of  ennui  ; 
others  are  endeavoring  to  relieve  the  tedium  of  the  slow 
creeping  hour  by  ingenious  devices  of  their  own — pin- 
traps,,  spit-balls,  picture-books  under  the  desks,  writing 
notes  to  their  fellows,  making  caricatures  on  their  slates, 
scratching  furniture,  telegraphing  on  a  small  scale,  etc., 
— some  have  books  open  before  them,  others  not ;  the 
class  that  is  ' 'on  the  line "  for  recitations  are  leaning 
against  the  blackboards  behind  them,  or  against  the 
desks  in  front  of  them  ;  some  are  paying  attention  to  the 
lesson,  others  are  busied  with  the  pupils  at  their  seats. 
The  teacher  is  distracted  and  confused. 

Take  the  room  as  a  whole,  and  the  lack  of  the  one 
spirit  that  should  prevail  in  it  is  painful  to  witness. 
The  almost  audible  sigh  of  the  whole  is  :  "  Oh,  that 
school  were  out ! "  The  visitor  thinks  of  the  Lotus-Eat- 
ers and  of  the  "  land  in  which  it  seemed  always  after- 
noon ;  all  round  the  coast  the  languid  air  did  swoon, 
breathing  like  one  that  had  a  weary  dream." 

The  visitor  who  has  come  to  inspect  the  school  looks 

carefully  into  the  methods  of  instruction  and 

discipline  in  order  that  he  may  discover  the 

primary  causes  of  this  failure,  and  suggest  its  remedy. 

He  notes  :  "  This  teacher  has  no  force  ;  she  has  no 
NO  force  in  hold  over  these  pupils;  she  does  not  make 
the  teacher.  Up  ^er  mind  at  the  outset  that  she  will  have 
this  and  not  that ;  she  commands  incessantly,  and  does 
not  wait  to  see  whether  any  command  is  obeyed  ;  she  ob- 
viously had  not  prepared  herself  on  the  lesson  before 
coming  to  school,  for,  see,  she  holds  the  text-book  in 
her  hand  and  is  closely  confined  to  the  text  while  she 


WHAT   MAKES   A    SCHOOL   LIFELESS  375 

asks  questions  :  at  obvious  allusions  to  the  subject  of  the 
previous  lesson  she  does  not  pause  to  call  it  up,  nor  does 
she  illustrate  the  difficult  portions  of  the  lesson  for 
to-day  ;  while  she  is  looking  in  the  book  for  the  next 
question,  a  pupil  has  answered  the  previous  one  inaccu- 
rately, or  has  omitted  the  essential  point ;  she  treats  the 
important  and  the  unimportant  questions  alike ;  no 
wonder  the  pupils  are  listless  ! " 

But  he  sees  that  this  phase  is  not  the  only  one  where- 
in the  teacher  acts  like  a  novice  ;  in  the  more  general 
programme  similar  defects  manifest  themselves  which 
he  notes  accordingly  : 

"  The  class  is  too  large,  and  too  much  time  is  taken  to 
hear  it ;  the  lesson  for  the  next  day  is  too  Defective 
long,  and  no  directions  are  given  as  to  how  to  organization, 
study  it ;  all  those  who  fail  are  kept  in  at  recess  or  after 
school ;  some  receive  individual  explanations,  and  con- 
sequently get  in  the  habit  of  crowding  around  the  teach- 
er's desk,  and  of  depending  on  her  direct  assistance. 

"  Added  to  this,  the  teacher  hears  many  parts  of  the 
lesson  in  concert,  and  the  consequence  is,  Concert 
only  those  portions  of  the  lessons  are  dwelt  recitation- 
upon  that  are  most  mechanical,  for  only  such  can  be 
recited  in  concert — discriminating  and  original  answers 
cannot  be  given  in  concert — concert  answers  must  be 
something  verbatim,  usually  short  answers  :  'Yes,  Sir', 
'  No,  Sir ',  '  Atlantic  Ocean  \  and  the  like.  Complete 
answers  are  made  by  the  smart  pupils,  while  the  dull 
ones  follow  the  lead  and  join  in  toward  the  end  of  the 
answer.  The  bright  pupils  answer  the  whole  :  f  Twenty- 
five  thousand  miles ' ;  the  less  bright  ones  says  :  '  Five 
thousand  miles ' ;  and  the  dull  ones  :  ( Thousand  miles'; 


376  CONDUCT   OF    RECITATIONS 

the  dullest  comes  in  at  the  word  '  Miles '.  These  pupils 
have  not  the  power  or  discipline  of  mind  to  concen- 
trate their  attention  for  so  long  a  recitation  ;  they  get 
fatigued  before  it  is  through,  and  listlessness  is  the 
result. 

Again  :  "  The  ventilation  is  not  attended  to,  and  the 
impure  air  causes  incipient  congestion  of  the 

Ventilation.  \  f 

brain;  so  a  few  of  the  delicate  ones  have 
headaches,  while  all  feel  that  apathy  and  indifference 
which  is  its  premonitory  symptom. 

"  Most  important  is  the  failure  of  the  teacher ;  she 
Definite  ^oes  no^  Prac^ise  a  system  of  definite  analysis 
analysis.  of  the  lesson  at  recitation.  She  asks  probing 
questions  only  seldom  ;  the  pupil  is  not  made  to  seize 
the  subject  and  analyze  it  till  he  thoroughly  under- 
stands it.  The  consequence  is,  he  does  not  know  how 
to  study  the  next  lesson,  nor  when  he  has  learned  it, 
and  therefore  does  not  study  at  his  seat,  having  no  defi- 
nite sense  of  his  deficiency  and  of  his  ability  to  over- 
come it." 

These  causes  of  failure  when  generalized  may  be 
Preparation  traced  to  one  prevailing  defect  on  the  part 
by  the  teacher.  of  tte  teacher.  And  this  may  be  described 
thus  :  The  teacher  fails  because  she  does  not  pay  care- 
ful attention  to  the  power  for  work  which  her  pupils 
actually  possess,  and  so  lay  out  tasks  and  secure  their 
accomplishment  as  to  increase  constantly  this  power  of 
work.  Previous  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
is  indispensable  for  this  result.  Everything  should  be 
digested  by  the  teacher  before  entering  the  school- 
room ;  she  should  re-enforce  the  moments  ~by  the  hours, 
and  thus  be  able  at  all  times  to  bring  to  bear  the  entire 


METHODS    OF   INSTRUCTION 


377 


weight  of  her  character  upon  the  pupil.  The  practice 
of  keeping  the  pupil  in  at  recess  for  failure  in  lessons  is 
very  baneful  in  its  effects.  The  cause  of  the  failure  is 
probably  owing  to  inability  to  concentrate  his  mind,  and 
here  the  cure  prescribed  is  calculated  to  heighten  the 
disease.  The  teacher  should  get  the  lesson  into  such 
shape  that  the  pupil  can  master  it  by  a  general  assault, 
and  he  should  not  be  allowed — at  home  or  in  school — 
to  make  a  dissipated,  scattering  attack  on  it. 

The  country  needs  school-teachers,  not  school-keepers. 
The  country  needs  men  and  women  to  conduct  rational 
recitations,  not  to  hear  classes.  The  country  needs 
masters,  and  mastery  is  attained  only  through  voluntary 
and  persistent  labor.  Michael  Angelo  says:  "  Trifles 
make  perfection,  but  perfection  is  no  trifle."  The 
teacher  should  be  watchful,  faithful,  and  prayerful. 
Then,  and  not  until  then,  will  he  attain  success  in 
teaching. 

METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

.  Rote,  memoriter. 

.  Rational. 


I. 

Methods 
of           1 

IL 

Teaching. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

Text-book, 


(1.  Rote. 

\  2.  Rational. 


Oral, 

Socratic, 

Topic  or  Subject, 

Discussion, 

Lecture. 

In  our  schools,  all  the  above  methods  may  be  found 
and  many  other  ways  not  entitled  to  the  name  of 
method. 

The  text-book  method  is  by  some  a  much   abused 
method.     When  teachers  simply  require  the    Text-book 
pupils  to  commit  a  lesson  to  memory  and    method- 


378  CONDUCT   OF  RECITATIONS 

recite  it  mechanically,  this  is  an  abuse  of  the  method. 
The  subject  is  one  of  unusual  interest  at  the  present 
time,  for  the  reason  that  so  much  is  said  and  written 
for  and  against  the  so-called  "  oral  "  and  "  text-book  " 
methods  respectively.  While  on  the  one  hand  the  text- 
Memoriter  book  method  is  stigmatized  as  a  dead  me- 
recitations,  chanical  memorizing  of  the  words  in  the 
book  and  then  a  parrot-like  repetition  of  the  same  to  the 
teacher,  who  sits  behind  the  desk  and  looks  on  the  book 
to  see  that  the  lesson  is  given  verbatim,  on  the  other 
hand  the  oral  system  is  accused  of  relieving  the  pupils 
from  the  necessity  of  study ;  of  throwing  all  the  work 
upon  the  teacher. 

No  doubt  there  are  legions  of  unskilful,  untrained,  or 
Unskilled  negligent  teachers  in  the  country.  Indeed, 
they  far  outnumber  the  skilful  and  pains- 
taking— and  it  is  hardly  fair  to  judge  the  methods  they 
employ  when  they  misuse  the  position  and  the  instru- 
ments placed  in  their  hands  so  far  as  to  make  the  text- 
book a  procrustean  bed  and  the  recitation  a  benumbing 
process  to  the  faculties  of  the  child.  The  mere  memor- 
izing of  the  context  is  no  index  to  the  understanding  of 
it.  A  school-mistress  once  said  to  a  little  girl :  "  How 
is  it,  my  dear,  that  you  do  not  understand  this  simple 
thing  ?"  "  I  do  not  know,  indeed,"  she  answered,  with 
a  preplexed  look ;  "  but  I  sometimes  think  I  have  so 
many  things  to  learn  that  I  have  no  time  to  under- 
stand." 

It  is  not  best  to  condemn  a  method  that  has  been  in 
use  for  hundreds  of  years  because  all  cannot  attain  good 
results.  But  systems  should  not  have  their  merits  ad- 
judged by  their  results  in  the  hands  of  bunglers  ;  they 


METHODS   OF   INSTRUCTION"  379 

should  be  compared  in  their  results  as  achieved  at  the 
hands  of  those  who  have  mastered  the  methods.  A  sys- 
tem is  not  responsible  for  the  failure  of  those  who  do 
not  follow  out  its  principles. 

Grand  results  have  been  attained  with  the  text-book 
method,  by  adopting  the  rational  method  of  recitation, 
— appealing  to  reason,  to  a  proper  understanding  of  the 
context  before  memorizing.  The  latter  is  insisted  on  by 
all  rational  teachers. 

The  oral  method  is  distinctively  German,  and  like  the 
text-book  method  has  its  friends  and  its  foes.    Oral 
In  some  schools  the  teachers  lecture  before    method- 
the  children,  and  require  them  to  reproduce  the  exact 
language  of  the  lecture.     In  this  case  it  is  as  much  a 
rote  or  memoriter  exercise  as  the  text-book  method. 

In  other  schools,  the  teachers  ask  suggestive  questions, 
— they  excite  the  pupilsf  curiosity,  awaken  the  mind, 
and  easily  hold  the  attention.  The  pupils  do  the  work, 
and  infer  the  answers  through  their  powers  of  percep- 
tion. This  is  real  education.  This  is  the  rational  oral 
method. 

The  best  method  is  a  philosophical  combination  of 
the  oral  and  the  text-book  methods — uniting  The  combined 
the  merits  and  rejecting  the  faults.  Oral  method. 
methods  predominate  properly  in  American  primary 
schools ;  text-book  methods  in  secondary  schools  and 
colleges ;  and  we  return  again  to  oral  methods,  or  lec- 
tures, in  the  professional  schools.  The  true  place  for 
oral  methods  is  in  preparatory  work.  Oral  instruction 
should  lead  to  and  prepare  for  the  text-book. 

The  best  work  in  American  schools  is  found  in  a  judi- 
cious combination  of  both  methods.  Oral  instruction 


380  CONDUCT    OF    RECITATIONS 

alone,  if  carried  through  a  course  of  education,  even 
if  teachers  are  prepared  to  give  it,  is  not  the  best  method. 
It  should  lead  to  a  mastery  of  other  thoughts  than  those 
on  the  printed  page.  The  most  effective  teaching  uses 
both  the  oral  and  text-book  methods.  If  used  properly, 
oral  teaching  will  teach  the  pupils  how  to  investigate. 
Oral  instruction,  in  its  results,  is  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance to  American  citizenship.  Young  children  have 
few  ideas,  for  they  have  heard  little,  read  little,  and 
their  observation  has  not  yet  been  developed. 

Oral  instruction  takes  a  more  permanent  hold  of  the 
mind  than  memorizing  from  books.  It  affords  the 
learner  an  opportunity  to  ask  questions  as  the  lesson 
proceeds,  and  gives  the  teacher  the  entire  control  of  the 
youthful  minds  that  lie  fallow  before  him.  It  opens 
also  a  field  for  enthusiasm  in  teaching  and  learning, 
where  everything  with  some  teachers  is  mere  drudgery. 
It  would  give  life  where  there  is  nothing  now  but  worn 
and  worthless  machinery  in  our  public  schools. 

Children  are  often  made  to  commit  to  memory  names 
and  dates  and  rules,  without  a  proper  understanding  of 
them.  The  text-book  becomes  the  real  instructor,  and 
not  the  living  man  or  woman  who  should  impart  in- 
struction. 

We  would  not  discard  the  text-books  entirely,  neither 
would  we  exclude  them. 

The  proper  place  for  oral  instruction  is  in  the  primary 
department ;  and  in  other  classes  the  oral  instruction 
should  be  of  such  a  character  as  to  prepare  the  pupils  for 
study,  so  that  no  time  may  be  wasted. 

Pupils  should  be  made  to  study  their  text-books  ; 
learn  short  lessons  ;  be  asked  by  their  teachers  not  only 


METHODS    OF   INSTRUCTION  381 

the  questions  in  the  books,  but  others  that  will  test  their 
knowledge  and  awaken  their  interest. 

Some  pupils  learn  readily  from  their  text  books,  and 
get  along  with  a  little  explanation.  Some  are  more  dull 
and  need  the  stimulus  of  recitation,  of  questions  and 
answers,  and  of  illustrations. 

By  skilful  questioning  the  pupil  is  led  to  discover  the 
truth,  and  trained  to  think.  Subjects  are  socratic 
developed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  learner.  method. 
The  teacher  stimulates  and  directs,  but  never  crams. 
Pupils  are  encouraged  to  present  their  own  thoughts. 
If  correct,  the  teacher  deepens  and  widens  their  views 
by  suggestive  illustrations.  If  incorrect,  the  absurdity 
is  shown  by  leading  the  pupils  to  discover  the  legitimate 
consequences.  Thus  the  burden  of  thought  and  re- 
search is  thrown  upon  the  learner,  who,  at  every  step, 
feels  the  joy  of  discovery  and  victory,  and  the  conscious 
pleasure  of  assisting  the  teacher.  Such  teaching  results 
in  development,  growth,  and  education.  "  The  exercise 
of  the  child's  own  powers,  stimulated  and  directed,  but 
not  superseded,  by  the  teacher's  interference,  ends  both 
in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  and  in  the  invigoration 
of  the  powers  for  future  acquisition." 

In  this  method  the  pupils  are  trained  to  tell  consecu- 
tively their  own  thoughts.     The  art  of  con-      Topical 
nected  discourse  is  essential ;  hence  by  our      method- 
best  teachers  the  topical  method  is  made  the  basi$  of  the 
recitation.     This  should  be  required  of  every  class  in 
school,  whenever  the  subject  will  admit  of  it.     No  other 
method  can  so  easily  secure  the  results  to  be  accom- 
plished.    Pointed,  searching  questions  are  asked  when- 
ever necessary,  and  instruction  is  given  in  the  Socratic 


382  CONDUCT   OF   RECITATIONS 

method.  At  any  moment  any  member  of  the  class  is 
liable  to  be  called  on  to  explain  a  difficulty,  to  answer  a 
question,  or  to  continue  a  topic.  Thus  life,  vigor,  un- 
divided attention,  and  effective  individual  effort  are 
secured  and  maintained  throughout  the  recitation. 

Prompting,  in  all  its  forms,  is  inartistic  and  perni- 
cious. The  aim  is  to  train  the  pupils  to  habits  of  inde- 
pendent expression,  as  well  as  independent  thought.  The 
exclusive  use  of  the  topic  method  is  an  extreme  to  be 
studiously  avoided,  as  it  excludes  instruction  and  fails 
to  elicit  the  intense  interest  and  the  earnest  effort  of 
every  member  of  the  class.  It  should  have  a  limited 
use  in  the  primary  department,  more  extended  in  the 
intermediate  and  senior  departments.  In  the  primary 
classes,  the  terms  may  be  developed  individually,  and 
written  on  the  board,  thus  forming  a  complete  tabula- 
tion and  classification. 

The  pupils  should  be  required  to  review  the  terms 
written  on  the  board,  without  any  assistance  from  the 
teacher. 

In  intermediate  and  senior  classes,  the  pupils  should 
be  taught  to  tabulate  and  classify,  and  recite  from  the 
tabulation. 

Briefly  and  pointedly  pupils  present  their  arguments 
Discussion  in  favor  of  their  respective  positions.  Criti- 
method.  cisms  are  urged  and  answered.  Every  point 
is  sharply  contested.  The  reasons  for  and  against  are 
carefully  weighed. 

Educationally  the  discussion  method  stands  high. 
It  is  like  the  interest  excited  in  debate  ;  in  these  mental 
conflicts,  the  utmost  power  of  the  pupil  is  put  forth. 


METHODS   OF    TEACHING  383 

There  is  no  better  way  to  cultivate  independence, 
self-assertion,  liberality,  and  the  habit  of  treating  an 
opponent  courteously  and  fairly.  The  discussion 
method  supplements  the  Socratic  and  topic  methods. 
It  breaks  up  monotony,  dissipates  stupidness  and  in- 
sipidity. 

From  the  primary  school  to  the  university  this  method 
may  be  used  with  incalculable  advantage  ;  but  in  all 
cases  it  must  be  kept  well  under  the  control  and  direc- 
tion of  the  teacher. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  method  that  will  excite  greater 
interest  than  this  rational  method.  There  is  less  exam- 
ining, less  artificial  training,  and  more  solid  develop- 
ment. The  discussion  method  is  pre-eminently  the 
method  to  make  thinking  men  and  thinking  women. 

Lecturing  is  another  method  of  instruction  which  has 
its  uses  and  abuses.  A  lecture  by  the  Lecture 
teacher  should  never  be  substituted  for  a  method- 
recitation  by  the  class.  Many  teachers  suppose  that  the 
measure  of  their  ability  as  instructors  is  the  power  they 
have  to  explain  and  illustrate  before  their  classes,  and 
hence  spend  most  of  the  time  assigned  to  recitation  in 
the  display  of  their  own  gifts  of  speech.  But  in  the 
recitation  room  the  good  teacher  has  but  little  to  say. 
Her  ability  is  tested  more  by  her  silence  than  by  her 
loquacity  ;  more  by  her  power  to  arouse  and  direct  the  ac- 
tivity of  her  pupils,  than  by  her  own  actions.  In  pro- 
fessional schools  and  in  the  advanced  classes  in  colleges, 
the  time  for  recitation  is  largely  spent  in  this  way. 
The  lecturer  outlines  the  subjects,  suggests  the  fields  of 
research,  indicates  the  line  of  thought,  givefe  much  in- 
formation, and  stimulates  the  pupils  to  eifort.  If  the 


384  CONDUCT    OF    RECITATIONS 

student,  by  long  continued  effort  makes  the  lecture  his 
own,  great  will  be  the  results. 

But  nowhere  in  this  country  has  the  lecture  method 
alone  given  entire  satisfaction.  It  has  been  found 
necessary  to  institute  oral  and  written  examinations  in 
order  to  make  it  effective. 

The  conversational  lecture  gives  results.  The  class 
by  skilful  questions  are  led  into  rich  fields  of  thought. 
Topics  are  discussed  by  the  teacher  and  the  pupils. 
Questions  are  asked  that  produce  thought ;  experiments 
are  performed  that  elicit  attention ;  pupils  are  led  to 
draw  inferences  from  what  they  perceive.  This  method 
was  admirably  used  by  the  wise  Socrates,  Plato,  and 
Aristotle.  From  these  great  masters  modern  teachers 
may  learn  important  lessons. 

The  lecture  method  is  utterly  out  of  place  in  primary 
classes.  Wherever  it  has  been  used  it  proves  a  failure. 

Whenever  a  teacher  gives  a  lecture  to  her  pupils,  she 
should  require  them  to  take  notes,  and  recite  after  every 
formal  lecture.  It  is  well  for  the  teacher  to  write  on 
the  board  a  tabulated  classification,  and  require  the 
pupils  to  copy. 

GENERAL  REMARKS 

Whatever  method  the  teacher  may  follow,  ONE  end 
should  be  attained  :  the  best  possible  development  of 
true  manhood  and  womanhood.  The  inquiry  may  rise, 
what  is  the  end  of  study,  recitation  and  instruction  ? 

Not  the  attainment  of  knowledge,  but  discipline — 
POWER.  It  is  undoubtedly  a  fact  that  "secular  educa- 
tion will  make  a  good  man  better,  but  a  bad  man 


LAWS   OF   QUESTIONING  385 

Education,  then,  is  not  the  storing  of  knowledge,  but 
the  development  of  power  ;  and  the  law  of  development 
is  thorough  exercise. 

Any  system  of  education,  therefore,  which  weakens 
the  motive  or  removes  the  necessity  of  laborious  think- 
ing is  false  in  theory  and  ruinous  in  practice. 

There  is  only  one  way  to  acquire  knowledge,  and  that 
way  is  through  study — the  voluntary  and  continual  ap- 
plication of  the  mind  to  a  subject. 

Laios  of  Questioning 

1.  Questions  should  be  clear  and  concise. 

2.  Questions  should  be  to  the  point. 

3.  Questions  should  be  adapted  to  the  capacity. 

4.  Questions  should  be  logical. 

5.  Questions  should  not  be  ambiguous. 

6.  Avoid  questions  that  give  a  choice  between  two 
answers. 

7.  Avoid  direct  questions. 

8.  Avoid  set  questions. 

9.  Avoid  general  questions. 

10.  Avoid  questions  that  simply  exercise  the  faculty 
of  memory. 

Objects  of  Questioning 

1.  To  find  out  what  the  pupils  know. 

2.  To  ascertain  what  they  need  to  know. 

3.  To  awaken  curiosity. 

4.  To  arouse  the  mind  to  action. 

5.  To  illustrate  ;  to  explain, — when  necessary. 

6.  To  impart  knowledge  not  found  in  the  text-book. 

7.  To  fix  knowledge  in  the  mind. 

8.  To  secure  thoroughness. 


386  COXDUCT    OF    RECITATIONS 

Cautions  to  be  Observed  in  Questioning 

1.  Ask  questions  only  once. 

2.  Vary  the  questions. 

3.  Begin  the  exercise  with  an  easy  question. 

4.  Let  your  questions  be  connected. 

5.  When  a  question  is  asked  do  not  suggest  the  first 
words  of  the  answer. 

6.  Enunciate  every  question  with  distinctness. 

7.  Anticipate  answers ;  arrange  suggestive  questions. 

8.  Never  neglect  or  ridicule  an  answer. 

9.  Never  tell  a  child  what  you  could  make  that  child 
tell  you. 

10.  Question  the  lesson  into  the  minds  of  the  pupils, 
and  question  it  out  again. 

11.  Lead  the  pupil  by  a  pleasant  question  to  discover 
his  own  mistake,  instead  of  directly  charging  him  with  it. 

General  Suggestions 

1.  Show  the  necessity   of  a  subject  before  you  begin 
to  teach  it. 

2.  Eequire  one  subject  to  be  understood  before  taking 
up  another. 

3.  Eequire  everything  that  is  taught  to  be  reproduced 
by  the  pupils. 

4.  Always  take  up  subjects  in  their  logical  order. 

5.  That  which   is  attempted   should  be   thoroughly 
mastered. 

6.  Eemember  that  all  the  powers  are  developed  by 
being  judiciously  and  vigorously  exercised. 

7.  Eemember  that  knowledge  is  of  little  value  unless 
it  can  be  utilized. 

NOTE. — Two  excellent  helps  on  questioning  are  Young's  "Art 
of  Putting  Questions",  and  Fitch's  "Art  of  Questioning",  cost- 
ing 15  cents  each. 


MISCELLANEOUS   SUGGESTIONS  387 

Special  Suggestions  to  Young  Teachers 

1.  Make  weekly  or  bi-weekly  inspections  of  all  books 
lield  by  the  pupils,  holding  each  responsible    Inspection 
for  the  right  use  of  the  same.     This  will    of  books, 
prevent  much  mutilation  and  destruction  of  books. 

2.  In  the   class-room  teachers  should  not  confine  the 
attention  of  the  pupils  exclusively  to  what    Outsi(je 

is  found  in  the  books.  "Books  are  but  information, 
helps,"  or  instruments  ;  and  while  that  which  is  con- 
tained in  them  should  be  judiciously  used  and  thor- 
oughly understood,  yet,  so  far  as  time  will  permit,  the 
teacher  can  with  advantage  introduce  such  matters  as 
not  only  are  valuable  in  themselves,  but  will  tend  to  im- 
press the  subject  of  the  lesson  more  firmly  upon  the 
mind. 

3.  Be  judicious  and  sparing  in  awarding  credit  or  dis- 
credit  marks  ;  to   be   lavish,  would   render    Ju(jicj0us 
them  cheap  and  comparatively  valueless.  marking. 

4.  Before   reproving   delinquents  in  recitation,  first 
inquire   whether  or  not  they  have  studied,   credit  honest 
and,  if  so,  what  effort  has  been  made.   Some  effort- 
pupils  may  devote  much  time  and  labor  to  the  acquire- 
ment of  their  lessons,  and  yet  in  the  class  room  be  weak 
in  their  recitation  ;  to  denounce  such  would  discourage 
rather  than  stimulate. 

5.  During  a  recitation,  the  attention  of  all  should  be 
engaged   upon  the  lesson  or  subject   under    Ensure 
consideration.  attention. 

6.  When  a  pupil  applies  for  assistance  on  any  ques- 
tion, do  not  accomplish  the  whole  yourself,  Give  help?  but 
nor  send   him   away   entirely  unaided;  but  not  too  much, 
after  he  has  studied  the  subject  faithfully,  present  to 


388  CONDUCT   OF   KECITATIOKS 

him  one  or  two  of  the  leading  principles  involved,  and 
then  leave  him  to  develop  the  matter  himself.  Too 
much  aid  is  sometimes  worse  than  too  little. 

7.  Before   entering   on   the   duties  of  the  day,  the 
The  teacher's  teacher   should   be    thoroughly    conversant 
preparation.     wjth  the  sub ject  of  each  lesson.     A  teacher, 
while  conducting  a  recitation,  should  never  be  obliged 
to  refer  to  the  look  or  map  for  the  purpose  of  ascertain- 
ing whether  or  not  the  pupil  is  correct  in  his  answer. 
Besides  displaying  a  weakness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
there  arises  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil  the  query,  Why 
should  I  study  what  my  teacher  does  not  know  ? 

The  teacher  should  be  first  well  acquainted  with  the 
true  answer  to  every  question,  and  the  correct  pronun- 
ciation of  every  word  in  the  several  lessons.  It  will  be 
seen  that  many  advantages  attend  this  plan  ;  the  chief 
of  which  are — much  time  is  saved,  the  teacher  instructs 
with  more  facility  and  success,  and  the  pupil,  observing 
the  familiarity  of  the  teacher  with  the  several  subjects, 
feels  for  him  and  for  the  subjects  a  greater  respect. 

8.  In  hearing  a  lesson,  give  the  pupil  time  to  answer 

when  he  appears  to  have  a  correct  idea,  and 
butPanowno    merely   hesitates   to   find    words   to  express 

himself ;  but  when  it  is  evident  that  he  is 
ignorant  of  the  answer,  waiting  is  but  a  loss  of  time, 
ideas  not  ^.  Be  sure  the  pupils  have  gained  IDEAS, 

words.  Words,  without  ideas,  clog  the  mind. 

10.  A  teacher  taking  charge  of  a  new  class,  should  at 
Push  first  advance  it  beyond  the  farthest  point  it 

forward.  ^ad  previously  attained  in  each  study,  In 
case  the  teacher  finds  the  new  class  deficient  in  what 
has  been  passed  over,  he  should  not  turn  back  until 


MISCELLANEOUS    SUGGESTIONS  389 

about  two  weeks  have  elapsed,  when  all  necessary  re- 
views may  be  made'.  When  a  class  passes  under  the 
control  of  another  teacher,  a  sudden  retrograde  move- 
ment would  produce  discentent  in  the  class.  At  all 
times,  the  teacher  should  avoid  allusion  tending  to  dis- 
parage the  course  of  his  predecessor  in  the  estimation 
of  the  class. 

11.  The  hearing  of  the  class  should  not  occupy  more 
than  one  hour  and  a  half  daily,  the  remain-    Recitinff 
der  of  the  day  being  devoted  to  actual  teach-    vs-  Caching. 
ing,  when  the  lessons  for  the  following  day  may  be  ex- 
plained by  the  teacher.     Answering  in  concert  should 
be  little  used. 

12.  Whenever  practicable,  teach  by  means  of  objects, 
or  through  the  medium  of  the  eye  ;  in  geog-    Employ 
raphy,  use  globes  and  maps ;  in  astronomy,    the  eye- 
use  orrery,  globes,  and  diagrams  ;  in  spelling,  frequently 
require  the  pupils  to  write  the  words  or  sentences  given. 

13.  If  you  would  have  no  drones  in  your  school,  talk 
at  each  recitation  to  the  dullest  in  your  class, 

.,      .  ,   J         .  Work  most 

and  use  all  your  ingenuity  in  endeavoring  to    with  the 

i  •  i         i        mi  1.1  ^  dullest. 

make  him  comprehend.     The   others,  then, 
will  be  sure  to  understand. 

14.  Make   each    exercise    as   attractive    as   possible. 
Think   out   your   methods   beforehand,  and    mustrate 
illustrate  freely.  freely- 

15.  Cultivate  self-control ;   never  be  led 
into  confusion  ;  and  above  all  be  in  earnest. 

16.  Be  cheerful  and  smile  often.     A  teacher  with  a 
long  face  casts  a  gloom  over  everything,  and 

n         u-n  •    j  J       i  Be  cheerful. 

eventually   chills  young   minds   and   closes 
young  hearts. 


390  CONDUCT   OF   RECITATIONS 

17.  Use  simple  language  when  you  explain  lessons, 
simple  Long  words  are  thrown  away  in  the  school- 
language,        room. 

18.  Thoroughly  test  each  pupil  on  the  lesson,  and  do 
Frequent        n0^  ^e  a^ra^  °f  repetition.     Eeview  every 
reviews.          ^ay,  or  mucn  win  be  lost.     Do  not  try  to 
teach  too  much  ;  better  teach  a  little  and  teach  it  well, 

19.  Endeavor   to   make   the   pupils   understand   the 
Make  them      meaning  of   what   they   study.      Probe  the 
understand.     matter  to  the  bottom,  and  get  at  the  real 
knowledge  of  your  scholars.     Cultivate  the  understand- 
ing, and  do  not  appeal  to  the  memory  alone.     Lay  the 
foundation  of  knowledge  firmly  and  well. 

20.  Impart  right  principles  and  lead  your  pupils  to  a 

higher  level,  to   a  nobler  range  of  thought. 
Endeavor  to  accomplish  all  that  skill,  intel- 
ligence, and  love  can  suggest. 

What  now  you  do,  you  know  not, 

But  shall  hereafter  know, 
When  the  seed  which  you  are  sowing 

To  a  whitened  field  shall  grow. 

'Tis  a  rich  young  soil  you're  tilling  ; 

Then  scatter  the  good  seeds  well ; 
Of  the  wealth  of  the  goldest  harvest 

Eternity  will  tell. 

21.  Teach  your  pupils  to  fight  manfully  in  the  war- 
set  a  noble      *are  °^  &ooc*  against  eyi^  truth  against  error  ; 
example.         an(j  above  all   let  the   eternal  principles   of 
right  and  wrong  govern  your  own  life,  and  form  a  part 
of  your  own  character.     If  you  do  this,  you  will  "sow 
beside   all  waters,    and   eventually  bring    home    your 
sheaves  rejoicing." 


FINAL   MAXIMS  391 

22.  Train  the   eye  to  perceive  correctly,  the  ear  to 
understand   correctly,  the   hand  to  execute    Final 
correctly,  the  tongue  to  speak  correctly,  and    maxims- 
the  mind  to  retain   correctly.     6(  Begin   at   the  begin- 
ning. "     "Follow  a  natural  order."     "Classify  knowl- 
edge."    "Master  principles." 


A  WORD  IN  CONCLUSION 


To  COMMISSIONERS  AND  SUPERINTENDENTS 

Upon  you  rest,  to  a  great  extent,  the  success  of  the 
schools  and  the  advancement  of  the  educational  interests 
of  this  country. 

It  is  by  the  recommending  and  licensing  of  competent 
and  efficient  teachers  that  you  are  the  most  successful 
in  promoting  the  interests  of  your  charge.  Let  the 
teachers  recommended  by  you  be  selected  more  with 
reference  to  social  culture,  to  exalted  moral  character,  to 
the  development  of  true  manhood  and  womanhood,  than 
to  either  scholarship  or  talent.  This  you  can  do  by 
selecting  and  recommending  only  such  persons  as  shall 
illustrate  in  their  lives  the  moral  lessons  which  should 
be  set  as  an  example  in  schools. 

You  stand  pledged  to  further  the  interests,  not  only 
of  literature  and  science,  but  of  the  highest  type  of 
morality. 

If  you  would  redeem  this  pledge  you  will  not  license 
as  a  teacher  any  one  who  violates  the  laws  of  moral 
purity,  who  gives  to  social  dissipation  the  hours  that 
belong  to  sleep,  or  who  indulges  in  any  practice  of  vice. 
A  sacred  trust  is  committed  to  you,  which,  if  faithfully 
and  wisely  discharged,  will  make  your  own  day  beauti- 
ful, and  scatter  blessings  along  the  pathway  of  coming 
years. 

(302) 


A   WORD   IN"   COKCLUSIO^  393 

To  TEACHERS 

An  experience  of  thirty  years  in  the  field  of  education 
has  secured  principles  and  conclusions  which    Help  the 
may   be  considered  not  theories,  but  facts.    weaker- 
One  fundamental  fact  thus  gained  is,  that  the  school 
should  be  an  appendage  of  the  family,  fitted  to  train 
the  ignorant  and  weak  by  self-sacrificing  labor  and  love, 
and  to  bestow  the  most  attention  on  the  weakest,  the 
most;  undeveloped,  and  the  most  sinful. 

It  is  exactly  the  opposite  course  to  which  teachers  are 
most  tempted.  The  bright,  the  good,  the  industrious, 
are  those  whom  it  is  most  agreeable  to  teach,  who  win 
most  affection,  and  who  promote  the  reputation  of  a 
teacher,  and  of  a  school  or  a  college. 

To  follow  this  principle,  then,  demands  more  clear 
views  of  duty  and  more  self-denying  benevolence  than 
ordinarily  abound. 

Another  is,  that  both  quickness  of  perception  and 
retentiveness  of  memory  depend  very  greatly  importance 
on  the  degree  of  interest  excited.  Hence  of  interest- 
the  importance  of  educating  young  persons  with  some 
practical  aim,  by  which,  in  case  of  poverty,  they  may 
support  themselves. 

Another  is,  that  there  is  no  other  knowledge  so  thor- 
ough and  permanent  as  that  gained  in  teach-    Knowiedge 
ing  others.  b^  teaching. 

Eepeatedly  has  it  been  observed  that  a  lesson  or  a 
problem  supposed  to  be  comprehended  was  imperfectly 
understood,  and  became  clear  only  in  attempts  to 
aid  others  in  understanding  it.  In  no  other  profession 
is  the  sacred  promise,  "  Give  and  it  shall  be  given  unto 
you,"  so  fully  realized  as  in  that  of  a  teacher. 


394  A   WORD   IK   CONCLUSION 

Another  is  that  in  acquiring  knowledge  but  few 
Few  subjects  branches  should  be  taken  at  one  time,  and 
at  a  time.  these  should  be  associated  in  their  character, 
so  that  each  is  an  assistance  in  understanding  and  re- 
membering the  others. 

There  is  a  great  loss  of  time  and  labor  in  the  com- 
mon method  of  pursuing  four  or  five  disconnected 
branches  of  study. 

The  mind  is  distracted  by  variety,  and  feels  a  feeble 
and  divided  interest. 

In  many  instances,  the  method  of  cramming  the 
mind  with  uninteresting  and  disconnected  details  serves 
to  debilitate  rather  than  promote  mental  power.  The 
memory  is  the  faculty  chiefly  cultivated,  and  this  at  the 
expense  of  the  others. 

In  government  be  gentle  yet  firm ;  not  anxious  to 
govern  in  those  things  that  are  innocent  and  harmless, 
but  to  restrain  practices  that  are  unquestionably  immoral 
by  the  exercise  of  all  the  authority  with  which  you  are 
invested. 

In  order  that  you  may  worthily  discharge  the  duties 
which  thus  confront  you  at  the  threshold  of  your  field 
of  labor,  it  is  of  the  first  importance  that  your  own 
habits  of  thought  and  life  be  wholly  correct. 

No  one  is  fit  to  govern  others  until  he  has  learned  to 
govern  himself.  Self-government  and  self-restraint  are 
impossible  without  intelligence  and  virtue. 

The  task  of  the  teacher  is  one  of  great  responsibility 
and  labor. 

It  is  easier  for  a  general  to  command  an  army  than 
for  a  teacher  to  govern  a  school ;  for  a  general  has  to 


TO   TEACHEKS  395 

deal  with  and  consider  only  immediate  results,  besides 
being  invested  with  absolute  power,  while  the  teacher 
has  to  consider  chiefly  results  to  be  attained  in  the 
future,  and  he  is  forbidden  by  the  consideration  of  his 
own  and  the  pupil's  welfare  to  exercise  other  than 
qualified  power. 

Then  the  military  commander  trains  his  soldiers  to 
wield  weapons  only  against  material  fortifications,  while 
the  teacher  is  to  discipline  those  under  his  control  in 
the  skilful  use  of  the  mental  and  moral  powers,  and 
prepare  them  to  contend  successfully  against  superstition 
begotten  of  ignorance,  against  habits  of  thought  and 
action  that  reach  their  root  far  back  in  the  centuries, 
and  "  against  spiritual  wickedness  in  high  places". 
Hence  great  statesmen  and  victorious  generals  are  of 
little  value  in  any  country  without  efficient  teachers. 

To  our  public  schools  we  must  look  for  those  who 
will  be  called  upon  to  manage  the  affairs  of  families,  to 
transact  the  business  of  town  and  of  State,  to  fill  the 
vacated  bench  of  justice,  to  sit  in  the  halls  of  legisla- 
tion, and  to  direct  and  control  the  church  of  God. 

Upon  the  character  of  our  schools  and  teachers,  there- 
fore, depends  the  weal  or  woe  of  unborn  millions,  the 
prosperity  or  downfall  of  our  boasted  institutions. 

As  the  concluding  thought,  teachers  and  friends,  may 
we  all  bear  in  mind  that  our  life  in  this  world  is  but  the 
preparatory  department  in  the  School  of  God. 

Let  us  be  so  attentive  to  the  lessons  given  us  by  the 
Great  Teacher,  that  when  the  day  of  examination  with 
us  severally  shall  come,  we  may  hear  the  glad  welcome 
"  Well  done  ",  and  at  last  gather  beyond  the  River,  under 


396  A  WORD   IN   CONCLUSION 

the  cloudless  sky  undimmed  by  the  shade  of  night, 
there  to  renew  our  search  for  knowledge  and  our  labors 
of  love,  with  immortal  faculties  that  are  least  weary 
when  most  employed. 


INDEX 


PAGE  PAGE 

abstracts  for  compositions 174       arrangement  of  material 330 

accent 33          —  study  by 123 

accuracy  and  rapidity 252       art  education 107 

adaptation  to  each  pupil 372         —  of  arts 37 

addition 241-247          —  of  language 148,  163 

advanced  geography 283       articulation 22,  24,  35,  42,  149 

aesthetic  element  in  drawing 114         —  exactness  in 61 

feelings 107          —  aspirate  tone 28 

aim  high 390        attention 47 

in  teaching  history 326       secured 360,  387 

aims  of  language  teaching 159       avoid  capriciousness 217 

all  may  write  good  letters 229 

alligation 270       bad  spelling  a  disgrace 58 

analysis  for  compositions 172       ball  frame,  use  of 236 

analysis  and  parsing 147  Bardeen's  Common  School  Law.. 347 

in  arithmetic. .  .246, 253,  256,  268          —  Geography 299 

in  reading 32  —  Primer  of  Letter-Writing. .  .234 

of  letter  writing 223       Rhetoric 187 

of  literature 34  —  Verbal  Pitfalls 187 

of  the  lesson 373,  376       beautiful,  love  of 107,  114 

of  words 15  Beebe's     First     Steps     among 

analytic  stage,  object  lessons 333  Figures 252 

Angelo,  Michel,  quoted 377       beginning  reading 9-22 

angry  letters 232        Bible  quoted 38,  148 

answers  from  all 334       biography  in  moral  training 321 

• received 158        bitter  words 233 

to  letters 234       blackboard  in  geography 284 

apologies 233       blots  in  letters 226 

apparatus 369  books  and  magazines  in  school . .  25 

in  object  teaching 347       breath  in  reading 36,  37 

application 41  Bryant's  advice  to  a  young  writer. 

arithmetic 235-271  228 

and  reason 254        Bugbee's  English  Syntax 200 

fundamental  rules 236-259        business  forms 271 

taught  in  drawing 116          —  letters 234 

arm  movement  in  penmanship. 65,  69       busy  work 19,  49,  359 

(397) 


398 


THE   SCHOOL   ROOM   GUIDE 


PAGE  PAGE 

calisthenics 362       curiosity  in  children 10 

Calkins,  N.  A. ,  quoted 15       the  natural  stimulant 358 

capital  letters 160,  189,  204 

casting  out  the  9's 270  Davis's  Fractional  Apparatus . .  .259 

cause  of  poor  spelling 58       dead  letters 202 

certificate  of  diligence 358       decoration  in  drawing 144 

character  of  the  teacher 360       defective  organization 375 

cheerful  school 357       definition  a  deduction 27 

cheerfulness  in  the  teacher 389       of  words 50 

children  imitate 40       definitions 30,  50,  147 

citizens  needed 328       development  of 188 

class  drills  in  penmanship 78       in  arithmetic 236 

classification 162       in  color 134 

of  sentences 199       in- geography 279 

climate 301-318          —  in  object  lessons 332 

color  and  form  study 133       of  pauses 28 

in  primary  grades 132-140       definitive  method,  spelling 53 

—  names 133       DeGraff,  E.  V.,  portrait iv 

—  perception  in  pupils 133       DeGraff  1s  Practical  Phonics 44 

sensation 133,  134       Pronunciation  Book 61 

colored  crayon 274,  284       derivatives 59 

papers  for  study 136       development  of  definitions 188 

combined  method 379       of  manhood 384 

comma,  lesson  on 170       of  subject 335 

common  noun,  lesson  on 165       devices  in  spelling 55 

composition 172       diacritical  signs 43,59 

method  of  spelling 54       dictation  in  drawing 115 

computation  first 235       method,  spelling 54 

concert  recitation 373,  375       dictionary,  how  used 27,  59 

concrete  division 255       discipline 360,  365 

construction  in  drawing 142       discussion  method 382 

constructive  method,  spelling ...  53       disorder  in  pupils 364 

conversation  in  drawing 127,  129       division 249 

—  in  object  lessons 333       drawing iii,  107-146 

in  teaching 18       and  arithmetic 116 

conversational  lecture 384       and  geography 117 

corporal  punishment 358       and  other  stndies 115 

correct  sentences  used 147       in  penmanship 63,  66 

correction  of  faults 44       from  solids 112 

corrections  in  reading 40       on  the  blackboard 27 

counting  for  pronunciation 28       drill  in  penmanship 70 

course  of  study 350-354  dull  pupils  not  slighted .... ,  .372,  389 

credit  honest  effort 387 

criticisms  one  at  a  time 30       ear  trained 43,44 

cross  lines  in  letters 226       early  habits  in  penmanship 63 


INDEX 


399 


PAGE 

earnestness  in  teaching 37,  389 

economy  words 241 

edges  and  corners  in  drawing  — 126 

education  a  pleasure 329 

by  nature 327 

Edwards's  Business  Problems..  .271 

Graded  Lessons  in  Language.  173 

Historical  cards 326 

elevation  of  the  wrist  in  penman- 
ship     74 

elocution 34 

elocutionary  reading 31 

emphasis 29,  33,  39,  226 

emulation 357 

enrolment  of  pupils 347 

enthusiasm  aroused 331 

enunciation 26 

every  teacher   may   teach  pen- 
manship   65 

exactness  in  language 269 

example  of  the  teacher 390 

exam  pies  in  arithmetic 180 

excite  interest 18 

excursions  into  the  country 357 

expedients  in  history 325 

explanations  in  reading 33 

expression  in  reading 40 

eyes  better  than  ears 51 

facts  about  salt 336 

in  perspective 320 

falsetto  tone 28 

familiar  objects 333 

Farnham's  Sentence  Method —  22 

faults  corrected 35 

few  subjects  at  a  time 394 

firmness  in  teaching 355 

first  day  in  school 347 

step  costs 246 

Fitch's  Art  of  Questioning 153 

How  to  Secure  Attention 360 

fixed  order  in  reciting 371 

flexibility  of  vocal  organs 43 

flourishes  in  penmanship 226 

folding  letters 219 

follow  nature's  plan 17 


PAGE 

force  in  teacher 374 

foreign  words 228 

form  and  color 135 

study 119 

drawing  and  col  or..  107- 146 

the  foundation 108 

forming  classes  in  school 348 

foundation  everything 235 

four  ends  of  penmanship 70 

fractional  unit 260 

fractions.,  .259-268 

f reearm  movement 66 

freedom  in  movement 70 

freehand  drawing., 112,  117 

Froebel's  form  sequence 109 

from  known  to  unknown 326,  331 

fundamental  error  in    penman- 
ship   62 

gauging   movement  in  penman- 
ship   81 

general  law  of  climate 304 

principles 62-69 

terms,  lesson  on 160 

gentle  yet  firm 394 

geography 272-319 

—  first  steps  in  teaching 272 

from  drawing 117 

of  North  America iii,  285 

should  be  real 272 

geographical  method  of  spelling.  54 

German  method  in  addition 241 

Gill,  John,  quoted 11 

good  reading  defined 31 

language  acquired 148 

sense  in  arithmetic 256 

in  school  management.  .356 

grammar 188-200 

a  model  study 188 

definitions  and  rules 188 

not  too  soon 147 

—  object  of 147 

grammatical  rules 147 

Griffin's  Topical  Geography 300 

Griffith's     Outline    Blackboard 

Maps 300 


400 


THE   SCHOOL   ROOM   GUIDE 


PAGE 

Grube  method 251 

guess  work  forbidden 388 

guttural  tone 28 

gymnastic  drills  in  penmanship.  96 


PAGE 
Juliand's  Brief  Views  of  United 

States  History 326 

justice  in  teaching 355 


keep  the  mind  active 257 

keeping  in  pupils 373 

Kidd's  Elocution  quoted 37 

Kiddle's  3000  Grammar  Questions 

200 

kindergarten  experience 109 

knowledge  by  teaching 393 

for  discipline 329 


habit  in  penmanship 63 

Hall's  Orthoepy  Made  Easy.. 61,  187 

hand  firm  in  penmanship 83 

training  in  penmanship. ..  .101 

harmonious  development 371 

Harris,  Wm.  T.,  quoted 373 

Natural  Science  Teaching..  345 

help  but  not  too  much 387 

Hicks,  Mrs.  Mary  Dana iii       language 147-187 

Hill,  Thomas,  quoted 236,  331       a  growth 148 

history 320-326       and  form  study 11 

and  citizenship 322       exactness  in 269 

dates  in 320       through  arithmetic 253 

moral  lessons  in 321,323  lateral  movement  in  penmanship.  84 

home  illustrations 280       laughing 363 

Hoose's  Studies  in  Articulation . .  61        Laurie,  S.  S. ,  quoted 236 

Hughes's  How  to  Secure  Atten-  learning  uuderstandingly 390 

tion 360       lecture  method 383 

legibility  in  penmanship 70,  224 

ideal  unit  of  color 133       Legouve  quoted 224 

ideas  and  expression 151       letters,  material  for 204 

of  form Ill       heading 205 

illustrate  freely 389        date 206 

imagination  in  drawing 113       introduction 207 

in  reading 34       titles 208 

importance  of  reading 38       salutation 210 

incidental  method  of  teaching.  ..331        avoid  familiarity 210 

independent  expression 382       avoid  capriciousness 210 

individuality  in  penmansip 68          —  style  of 227 

in  pupils 269          —  of  introduction 234 

of  children 107       letter-writing 201-234 

industrial  education 107       importance  of 201 

inflection 33,  37       lifeless  school 373 

inspection  of  text-books 387       listlessness  in  school 373 

intelligent  reading 38       literature,  analysis  of 34 

intellectual  arithmetic 257       1  itteri  ng  up  the  floor 363 

reading 39       living  method  of  teaching 332 

interest  secured 29,  393       logic  of  arithmetic 259 

intermediate  drawing 141-146       Longfellow  quoted 180 

intonation 35,  37       loud  study 363 


INDEX 


401 


PAGE 

machinery  of  reading .  39 

make  haste  slowly 235 

manual  training 118 

map  drawing 282 

maps 284 

margins  in  letters 214,  217 

marki ng  pupils 387 

McKay's  100  Experiments 345 

mechanical  defects 40 

—  reading 38 

spelling 46 

structure  of  letters 201 ,  203 

Meiklejohn,  J.  M.  D iii 

memoriter  recitations 378 

memory  in  arithmetic 253,  254 

of  facts 335 

—  of  form 114 

mental  arithmetic 257 

discipline  in  arithmetic 258 

training,  sciences 328 

methods  in  language 148 

—  in  spelling 53,  55 

of  instruction 377 

misspelled  words  repeated 50 

mistakes  corrected 39,  158 

in  speech 180 

in  spelling  discovered 51 

record  of 181 

model  inspection  of  work 52 

lessons  in  color 138 

in  divisibility 342 

in  drawing 127,  129 

in  grammar, 195 

in  language 154 

in  object  teaching 336,  339 

modelling Ill 

modes  of  recitation  varied 49 

modulation 37 

money  lost  i  n  letters 202 

monitors 51 

in  penmanship 104 

moral  sentiment  cultivated  31 

movement  in  penmanship 62 

drills  in  penmanship 74,  83 

of  classes 349 

moving 363 


PAGE 

multiplication 249 

muscular    development  in    pen- 
manship  83 

movement  in  penmanship...  77 

nasal  twang 25 

natural  history 163,  275 

method  spelling 54 

position  in  penmanship 67 

science  and  drawing 117 

effect  of 328 

in  elementary  schools.  .327 

voice 34,  37 

nature  as  an  educator 327 

begins  with  objects 17 

recognition  of 107 

study  and  drawing 118 

Nelly 32 

newspaper  letters 227 

North  America,  study  of 285-299 

Northam's  Facts  of  American 

History 325 

Geography  of  Lewis  county. 300 

not  imitation  but  movement 66 

knowledge  but  power 384 

too  many  details 337 

notation 238 

noun,  lesson  on 164 

numeration 238 

obedience  from  the  first 362 

object  and  word  method 20 

lessons 327-345 

aim  of 332 

of  teaching  reading 35 

objective  method  of  spelling 53 

objects  as  wholes 148 

comparison  of 158 

first  in  division 249 

first  in  fractions 259 

—  in  addition 241 

in  language  teaching..  .148,  183 

in  recitation 389 

in  subtraction 247 

parts  of 151 

oblique  rays 302 


402 


THE   SCHOOL    ROOM   GUIDE 


PAGE 

observation  before  thought.. 151,  272 

ha  bits  of 329 

offences  not  to  be  anticipated.... 356 

offhand  movement 66 

one  difficulty  at  a  time 22 

oral  and  written  spelling 49 

method 379 

spelling 47-50 

« not  a  test 59 

. only  one  trial 49 

value  of 47 

teaching  of  grammar 188 

organization 346-354 

original  problems 270 

originality  in  pupils 269 

orthoepy  exercises 59 

our  country  first 321 

outlines  of  compositions 182 

outside  information 387 

ovals  in  penmanship 66 

over  governing 360 

paper  folding  and  cutting. ..112,  116 

paragraphing .204,  216 

parts  of  speech 163 

pauses  in  reading 39 

minding  the 28 

Peabody.   Elizabeth    P.,    postal 

card 225 

pectoral  tone 28 

pen,  holding  of 82 

penmanship iii,  19,  62-106, 160 

by  imitation 64 

in  spelling 49,58 

not  acquired  by  imitation. . .  62 

perception  of  discovery 334 

of  verification 334 

perseverance 47 

personal  power  of  the  teacher. .  .331 

phonic  and  word  methods 12,  20 

phonics 24,  42-44 

physical  and  political  geography.284 

features  first 283 

—  geography 301-319 

pictures,  use  of 27 

picturing  out  words 41 


PAGE 

place  lessons 117 

plan  of  grammar  study 188 

Plato  quoted 359 

points  of  compass 276 

Pope  q uoted 201 

position  in  penmanship 71 

of  pupil 70,  371 

of  the  hand 63 

possessive  form,  lesson  on 168 

postage  stamps 221,  234 

postcripts 226 

posture  in  reading 36,  37 

practical  arithmetic 257 

exercises 69-102 

work  in  arithmetic 270 

preliminary  drill 371 

preparation  by  the  teacher 376 

for  difficult  lessons 368 

for  reading  class 29 

for  the  lesson 153,  182,  369 

Prentice's  Review  Problems 271 

primary  drawing 108-140 

readi  n  g 22-30 

truths  for  children 27 

printing  and  script 19,  58 

privileges  i  n  school 356 

process  more  than  analysis 235 

programme  of  school -day 349 

promotion  too  rapid 240 

pronunciation 

22,  30,  33,  37,  39,  47,  49,  149 

exercises 59 

phonic  method 11 

proper  noun,  lesson  on 167 

propositions  in  sentences 195 

punctuation 31,  33,  48,  150 

...160,  170, 189,  190,  204,  214,  221 

marks 28 

pupils  must  do  the  work 370 

pure  tone 28 

push  forward 388 

qualification  of  pupils 348 

qualities  of  objects 152 

quality  words 18 

quarrelling 364 


INDEX 


403 


PAGE  PAGE 

questioning 158,  334,  384       record  of  mistakes 181 

in  arithmetic 253 of  movement  in  penmanship. 86 

laws  of 385       regents'  questions 271 

objects  of 385       rehearsal  of  recitation 370 

questions  during  recitation 363  repetition  of  movement  in   pen- 

for  debate 184  manship 67 

in  penmanship 89,95       representation  in  drawing 143 

presented  singly 256       reproduction  exercises 150 

quietness  in  the  schoolroom 362       in  object  teaching 337 

of  lessons 369 

rapid  execution  in  penmanship... 70       of  stories 173 

reading 9-41        requirements  in  reading 35 

a  thought  process 39       retention 47 

alphabet  method 9       review 256,  370 

devices  in 23       frequently 390 

difficult  selections  in 25       reviews  in  object  lessons 333 

drawing  method 10       Roget's  Thesaurus 180 

interest  in 25       rote  teaching 331 

intermediate 30-41       rotund  tone 28 

interruption  in 25       rules  for  spelling 45 

like  conversation 26       in  arithmetic 236 

look  and  say  method 14       in  orthography 45 

natural  tones  in ,.  24 in  reading 29,  35 

naturally 29       of  inflection 36 

no  spelling  in 22,  23 

not  mechanical 24       Sanford's  Limited  Speller 61 

object  in 27 word     method    in    number 

objectmethod 15  243,247 

of  problems 256       scale  of  color 135 

phonetic  method 11,  13       scholarly  ability 372 

phonotypic  method 13       school  government 355-364 

questioning  in 18 management 346-391 

sentence  method 21       reflects  the  teacher 361 

the  end  of 24 should  be  home-like 357 

thought  in 21        science  of  language 147 

understandingly 29,  30,  37       vs.  art  of  arithmetic 236 

vs.  spelling 23 without  apparatus 330 

word-building  method 11        see,  compare,  do,  tell 159 

word-method 16       self-control 389,  394 

reason  in  young  children 236       help  by  the  pupil 161 

recitation  an  end 365       sense  teaching 328 

object  of 365       sentence,  declarative 191 

recitations 365-391       -explanatory 193 

made  games 40       imperative 192 

made  interesting 372 interrogative '. . .  191 

reciting  vs.  teaching 389          —kinds  of 190 


404 


THE   SCHOOL   ROOM   GUIDE 


PAGE  PAGE 

sentence  object  of 190  surface  and  face  in  drawing 124 

predicate  of., 190  synonyms,  exercises  in 179 

study  of 189  synopsis  in  object  teaching.,. ...337 

subject  of 189  importance  of 18£ 

short  ex«rcises 43,  373 

short  school  hours 359  tablet  laying Ill,  116 

sight,  study  by 121  tajks  on  composition, 183 

simple  language tattling 364 

150,  180,227,228,  334,  390  tautology 226 

sing-song  drawl 24  teacher  must  have  a  plan 152 

sketching  of  solid  objects 118  must  labor 37 

slang 228  -should  be  good  reader 26 

slate  work  deprecated 64,  65  teacher's  contract 346 

Smith,  Sidney,  quoted 226  preparation 38& 

soapbubles  in  geography 273  teachers  not  school  keepers 377 

Socratic  method 381  teaching  contrary  to  nature 32  7 

and  topical  methods 383  technical  phrases  avoided 183 

solids,  study  of 119  telegraphy 67 

songs  in  school 347  temperature 302,  373 

sounds  of  language 42  ten  rules  for  spelling 59 

special  offences 362  tests  of  the  teacher 365 

specimen  compositions 155,  156  tests  in  arithmetic 270 

spelling... 9,  14,  45-61,  160  text-book  history 321 

acquired  by  writing 23  •  method 377 

and  reading 46  text-books 368,  380- 

in  language  lessons 153  themes  for  composition 172 

neglected 58  theory  and  practice. 258 

taught  incidentally 150  thing  before  the  word 17 

through  the  eye 51  thinking  men 383 

Spencer,  Herbert,  quoted 180  thought  carried  into  expression.  40 

spirit  of  the  teacher 17  first  in  reading 40 

stand  while  reciting 371 the  one  essential 182 

standard  colors 134  three  rules  in  speaking 34 

stick  laying 112,  116  topical  method 381 

stories  in  language  teaching 173  touch,  study  by 120 

in  school 25,  26  training  mental  powers 162 

study  in  reading 35  trial  on  the  difficult  words 56 

made  interesting 37       trivial  corrections 40 

made  pleasant 17,  359       true  manhood 390 

—  the  problem  before  solving.. 256  two  hands  in  penmanship 64 

subjects  for  composition type  models 114 

173,  184,  185       types  of  beauty 145 

substance  of  the  letter 229          —  of  form 108> 

subtraction 247-249 

suggestions  to  young  teachers. ..387       uncleanliness  in  pupils 364^ 

superscription 221       underscoring  in  letters 226- 


INDEX 


405 


PAGE 

uniform  examination  questions .  .271 

uniformity  in  penmanship 70 

unity  in  arithmetic 260 

unskilled  teachers 378 

untruthfulness 364 

use  of  text-books 369 

Van  Wie's  Outlines  in  United 

States  History 326 

ventilation 373, 376 

verbatim  recitations 371 

vital  element  in  object  lessons. .  .333 

voice  in  the  schoolroom 362 

training 39 

vulgarisms,  examples 181 

wake  up  mind 372 

Wells,  Charles  R iii 

what  to  write 230 

whispering 362 

whole-arm  movement 66 

Wilkins's  Manual  of  Map  Draw- 
ing  281 


PAGE 

Williams's    Topics  and    Refer- 
ences   326 

Wilson's  Elementary  Language.  180 

Grammar  Made  Practical ...  156 

women's  signatures 218 

work  most  with  the  dullest 389 

write  as  you  talk 231 

fully 230 

promptly 231 

writing  not  drawing 66 

notes 363 

written  analysis  in  arithmetic..  .252 

problems 257 

spelling 50-59 

word  and  object  method 20 

and  phonic  methods 12,  20 

the  object  of  thought 17,  19 

words,  definition  of 24,  27 

difficult 27 

in  sentences 50 

misspelled 46,  47 

observed t ..,,.,..  153 


-THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS- 


Books  on  School  Management 

1.  School  Management:  including  a  general  view  of  the  work  of  educa- 
tion, with  some  account  of  the  intellectual   faculties  from  the  teachers* 
point  of  view,  organization,  discipline,  and  moral  training.    By  JOSEPH 
LANDON.    16ino,  pp.  400.    In  Manilla  50  cts. ;  in  Cloth  $1.25. 

This  standard  work  is  at  once  scientific  and  practical:  it  gives  the  bear- 
ing of  the  facts  of  psychology  upon  the  work  of  the  teacher,  and  deals  par- 
ticularly with  organization  and  discipline,  while  at  the  same  time  it  con- 
tains a  great  many  hints  upon  actual  teaching,  making  a  complete  and 
helpful  manual. 

It  has  been  adopted  as  a  text-book  in  the  school  of  pedagogy,  Syracuse 
university,  and  in  many  of  the  largest  normal  schools  in  the  country.  The 
author  has  positive  views,  and  illustrates  them  from  actual  experience,  so 
that  the  book  gives  the  teacher  much  food  for  thought,  as  well  as  direct  in- 
struction. For  class  use  and  for  the  teacher  preparing  for  examination,  it 
has  no  equal.  It  is  a  modern  book,  giving  the  latest  views  of  leading  au- 
thorities with  the  author's  comments,  and  is  adapted  to  the  school  wants  of 
to-day.  The  chapters  upon  school  discipline  and  moral  training  are  of 
especial  value  as  being  in  line  with  the  most  recent  thought  and  the  most 
approved  practice. 

2.  Hand  Book  for  Young  Teachers.    By  H.  B.  BUCKHAM,  formerly  prin- 
cipal of  the  State  Normal  School  af  Buffalo.    Cloth,  16rao,  pp.  152.    75  cts. 

This  is  emphatically  a  book  for  beginners,  and  it  is  a  book  without  which 
no  teacher  should  undertake  a  first  term  at  school. 

"  If  there  be  another  book  to  compare  with  it  in  practical  usefulness 
we  have  not  seen  it."— Public  School  Journal. 

3.  The  Management  of  Country  Schools.    By  J.  P.  BATSDOBP.    Paper, 
8vo,  pp.  33.    20  cts.    Of  especial  assistance  to  rural  teachers. 

4.  Introductory  Text-Book  to  School  Education,  Method,  and  School 
Management.    By  JOHN  GILL.    Cloth,  16mo,  pp.  276.    $1.00. 

5.  Mistakes  in   Teaching.    By  JAMES  L.   HUGHES.    American  edition, 
with  contents  and  index.    Cloth,  16mo,  pp.  135.    50  cts. 

More  than  15,000  have  been  used  in  the  county  institutes  of  Iowa,  and 
elsewhere  superintendents  often  choose  this  book  for  their  less  thoughtful 
teachers,  assured  that  its  pungent  style  and  chatty  treatment  will  arrest 
attention  and  produce  good  results. 

6.  A  Primer  of  School  Management.    Manilla,  16mo,  pp.  45.    25  cts. 

7.  The  School  Room  Guide.    By  E.   V.  DEGRAFF.    16mo,  pp.  396.    In 
Manilla,  50 cts.;  In  Cloth,  $1.50. 

8.  The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching.    By  DAVID  P.  PAGE.    16mo, 
pp.  448.     In  Manilla,  50  cts. ;  In  Cloth,  $1.00. 

Of  the  last  two  it  need  only  be  said  that  they  were  two  of  the  three 
books  selected  by  the  Examination  Board  of  the  State  of  New  York  as  the 
text-books  on  which  all  questions  upon  Methods  and  School  Management 
should  bo  based  in  the  State  and  Uniform  Examinations  for  1895,  and  were 
"e-adopted  for  1896  and  1897,  after  which  no  books  were  specified. 


STANDARD  TEACHERS'  LIBRARY,  No.  51.- 


Landon's  School  Management. 

This  standard  work,  by  Joseph  Landon,  lecturer  on  school  management 
in  the  training  college,  Saltley,  England,  gives  a  general  view  of  educa- 
tion, with  some  account  of  the  Intellectual  Faculties  from  the  teacher's 
point  of  view,  Organization,  Discipline,  and  Moral  Training. 

It  is  at  once  scientific  and  practical ;  it  gives  the  bearing  of  the  facts  of 
psychology  upon  the  work  of  the  teacher,  and  deals  particularly  with  or- 
ganization and  discipline,  while  at  the  same  time  it  contains  a  great  many 
hints  upon  actual  teaching,  making  it  a  complete  and  helpful  manual. 

The  chapters  are  as  follows: 

PART  I.    GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  WORK  OP  EDUCATION. 

1.  The  meaning  and  scope  of  education. 

2.  Three  lines  of  educational  development. 

3.  Some  lessons  to  be  learned  from  a  brief  consideration  of  sensation, 
perception,  conception,  and  attention. 

4.  Memory  in  education. 

5.  The  cultivation  of  the  imagination,  judgment,  and  reason. 

6.  The  school  work  of  the  teacher. 

PART  II.    ORGANIZATION. 

1.  Systems  of  organization. 

2.  The  school  and  its  appointments. 

3.  The  classification  of  the  children. 

4.  The  qualifications,  duties,  and  distribution  of  teachers. 

5.  The  arrangement  of  time  and  subjects. 

6.  The  apparatus  and  books. 

7.  Kegistration. 

PART  III.    DISCIPLINE  AND  MORAL  TRAINING. 

1.  The  use  of  the  emotions  in  education,  and  their  cultivation. 

2.  General  moral  and  religious  training. 

3.  The  government  of  children — school  tactics. 

4.  Motives,  and  the  training  of  the  will. 

5.  The  nature  and  uses  of  punishment. 

It  has  been  adopted  as  a  text-book  in  the  school  of  pedagogy,  Syracuse 
university,  and  in  many  of  the  largest  normal  schools  in  the  country.  The 
author  has  positive  views,  and  illustrates  them  from  actual  experience,  so 
that  the  book  gives  the  teacher  much  food  for  thought,  as  well  as  direct  in- 
struction. For  class  use  and  for  the  teacher  preparing  for  examination,  it 
has  no  equal.  It  is  a  modern  book,  giving  the  latest  views  of  leading  au- 
thorities with  the  author's  comments,  and  is  adapted  to  the  school  wants  of 
to-day.  The  chapters  upon  school  discipline  and  moral  training  are  of 
especial  value  as  being  in  line  with  the  most  recent  thought  and  the  most 
approved  practice. 

16mo,  pp.  40O.    Manilla  50  cts.;  Cloth  $1.25. 

C.  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  ST.  Y. 


-STANDARD  TEACHERS  LIBRARY,  No.  , 


Pap's  Ttory  ani  Practice  of  Teaciins. 

No  other  American  book  on  teaching  has  so  much  claim  as  this  to  be 
considered  a  classic.  For  nearly  fifty 
years  it  has  been  regarded  almost  uni- 
versally as  the  one  book  the  young 
teacher  would  most  profit  by.  A  hun- 
dred thousand  teachers  have  drawn 
help  and  inspiration  from  its  pages. 

It  seems  only  just  to  the  author  of  a 
work  so  successful  that  his  book  should 
be  printed  just  as  he  wrote  it.  The  day 
is  past  when  commentators  re-write 
Shakspere.  They  may  annotate  and 
explain  and  conjecture,  but  they  take 
the  text  as  they  find  it,  and  print  their 
observations  in  another  type.  This 
lx>ok  has  been  less  fortunate.  In  different  editions  since  Mr.  Page's  death 
chapters  have  been  added,  details  have  been  changed,  passages  have  been 
entirely  rewritten. 

This  volume  goes  back  to  the  book  that  Mr.  Page  published,  and  fol- 
lows word  for  word  the  text  of  the  only  edition  he  ever  authorized.  Where 
the  times  have  changed  and  we  in  them,  references  to  present  conditions 
are  given  in  the  notes  that  follow,  which  will  be  found  of  great  value  as 
illustrating  how  different  in  many  respects  is  the  environment  of  teaching 
now  from  what  it  was  half  a  century  ago,  while  yet  the  teacher's  difficul- 
ties are  largely  the  same,  and  his  failure  or  his  success  depends  upon  the 
same  fundamental  principles.  These  notes  are  also  in  some  part  explana- 
tory and  historical,  with  portraits  of  Page,  Mann,  Colburn,  Emerson,  Pot- 
ter, Wadsworth,  and  Olmsted.  There  are  also  a  biography  of  Mr.  Page  and 
a  full  topical  index  for  review. 

*  In  short  this  is  so  much  the  best  edition  issued,  that  even  those  who  al- 
ready have  another  edition  can  afford  to  throw  that  aside  and  use  this  alone. 
The  following  are  among  the  commendations  it  has  received  : 
"  This  work  has  so  long  been  recognized  as  one  of  the  great  educational 
classics  that  comment  here  is  unnecessary,  except  to  say  that  Mr.  Bar- 
deen's  latest  edition  is  especially  well  printed  and  has  a  fine  full-page  por- 
trait of  its  great  author.— Art  Education." 

"  While  it  is  one  of  the  oldest  books  on  teaching  published  in  this  coun- 
try none  of  its  successors  surpass  it  in  its  high  ideal  of  the  teacher's  life 
and  work,  which  is  held  constantly  in  view.  The  true  spirit  of  the  teacher 
breathes  in  every  line,  and  it  is  a  continual  source  of  guidance  and  inspira- 
tion to  all  who  would  realize  the  most  fruitful  results  in  this  noble  and 
responsible  vocation.  It  should  be  the  first  book  studied  by  every  teacher, 
and  should  be  his  constant  companion  at  all  times."— School  Forum. 

C.  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  K.  Y. 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


